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How many “grammars” per “language”?

Mapping the psycholinguistic boundaries between Spanish and Palenquero

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The Palenquero creole language (spoken together with Spanish in San Basilio de Palenque, Colombia) exhibits a number of key grammatical features found in no variety of Spanish; mutual intelligibility between Spanish and Palenquero is quite low. It is not unreasonable to assume that Palenqueros psycholinguistically partition Spanish and Palenquero, that they are able to identify given configur-ations as belonging to either Spanish or Palenquero, and that utterances con-taining both quintessentially Palenquero and uniquely Spanish structures will be acknowledged as mixed. The present study is based on experiments conducted in San Basilio de Palenque, using stimuli extracted from natural speech samples, entirely in Spanish, entirely in Palenquero, and containing what might be con-sidered Spanish-LP morphosyntactic mixing. The overall results suggest that code-switching as commonly defined is not explicitly accepted by Palenqueros. They also demonstrate an asymmetry between perception and production: “grammars” and “languages” are not psycholinguistically coterminous for LP-Spanish bilinguals.

References

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    2011 “Whose? L2-English speakers’ possessive pronoun gender errors”. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition14.318–331. doi: 10.1017/S1366728910000325
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  4. Bickerton, Derek & Aquiles Escalante
    1970 “Palenquero: a Spanish ‑based creole of northern Colombia”. Lingua32.254‑67. doi: 10.1016/0024‑3841(70)90080‑X
     https://doi.org/10.1016/0024-3841(70)90080-X [Google Scholar]
  5. Boersma, Paul & David Weenink
    1999–2005 “PRAAT: Doing phonetics by computer.” www.fon.hum.uva.nl/praat/
  6. Bresnan, Joan
    2007 “Is syntactic knowledge probabilistic? Experiments with English dative alternation”. Roots: linguistics in search of its evidential baseed. by Sam Featherston & Wolfgang Sternefeld , 75–96. Berlin & New York: Mouton de Gruyter.
     [Google Scholar]
  7. Cásseres Estrada, Solmery
    2005 Diccionario lengua afro palenquero-español. Cartagena de Indias: Ediciones Pluma de Mompox.
     [Google Scholar]
  8. Clyne, Michael
    1972 “Perception of code-switching by bilinguals: an experiment”. ITL: Review of Applied Linguistics16.45–48.
     [Google Scholar]
  9. De Camp, David
    1971 “Towards a generative analysis of a post-creole continuum”. Pidginization and creolization of languagesed. by Dell Hymes , 349–370. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
     [Google Scholar]
  10. Ellis, Rod
    1991 “Grammaticality judgments and second language acquisition”. Studies in Second Language Acquisition13.161–186. doi: 10.1017/S0272263100009931
     https://doi.org/10.1017/S0272263100009931 [Google Scholar]
  11. Friedemann, Nina S. de & Carlos Patiño Rosselli
    1983 Lengua y sociedad en el Palenque de San Basilio. Bogotá: Instituto Caro y Cuervo.
     [Google Scholar]
  12. Grosjean, François & James Paul Gee
    1987 “Prosodic structure and spoken word recognition”. Cognition25.135–155. doi: 10.1016/0010‑0277(87)90007‑2
     https://doi.org/10.1016/0010-0277(87)90007-2 [Google Scholar]
  13. Gullberg, Marianne , Peter Indefrey & Pieter Muysken
    2009 “Research techniques for the study of code-switching”. The Cambridge handbook of linguistic code-switchinged. by Barbara Bullock & Almeida Jacqueline Toribio , 21–39. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi: 10.1017/CBO9780511576331.003
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  14. Hualde, José Ignacio & Armin Schwegler
    2008 “Intonation in Palenquero”. Journal of Pidgin and Creole Languages23.1–31. doi: 10.1075/jpcl.23.1.02hua
     https://doi.org/10.1075/jpcl.23.1.02hua [Google Scholar]
  15. Kroll, Judith , Susan Bobb , Mayra Misra & Taomei Guo
    2008 “Language selection in bilingual speech: evidence for inhibitory processes”. Acta Psychologica128.416–430. doi: 10.1016/j.actpsy.2008.02.001
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    2011 “Juggling two languages in one mind: what bilinguals tell us about language processing and its consequences for cognition”. Psychology of Learning and Motivation56.229–262. doi: 10.1016/B978‑0‑12‑394393‑4.00007‑8
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    1970 A descriptive analysis of the Palenquero dialect (a Spanish-based creole of northern Colombia, South America). M.A. thesis, University of the West Indies, Mona, Jamaica.
     [Google Scholar]
  18. Lipski, John
    2010 “Pitch polarity in Palenquero: a possible locus of H tone”. Linguistic studies in Romance languagesed. by Sonia Colina , 111–127. Amsterdam & Philadelphia: John Benjamins. doi: 10.1075/cilt.315.07lip
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     https://doi.org/10.1075/jpcl.26.2.03lip [Google Scholar]
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     [Google Scholar]
  21. 2012b “Free at last: from bound morpheme to discourse marker in Lengua ri Palenge (Palenquero Creole Spanish)”. Anthropological Linguistics54.101–132. doi: 10.1353/anl.2012.0007
     https://doi.org/10.1353/anl.2012.0007 [Google Scholar]
  22. Marslen-Wilson, William
    1985 “Speech shadowing and speech comprehension”. Speech Communication4.55–73. doi: 10.1016/0167‑6393(85)90036‑6
     https://doi.org/10.1016/0167-6393(85)90036-6 [Google Scholar]
  23. Megenney, William
    1986 El palenquero: un lenguaje post-criollo colombiano. Bogotá: Instituto Caro y Cuervo.
     [Google Scholar]
  24. Meijer, Paul & Jean Fox Tree
    2003 “Building syntactic structures in speaking: a bilingual exploration”. Experimental Psychology50:3.184–195. doi: 10.1026//1617‑3169.50.3.184
     https://doi.org/10.1026//1617-3169.50.3.184 [Google Scholar]
  25. Miller, George & Stephen Isard
    1963 “Some perceptual consequences of linguistic rules”. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior2.217–228. doi: 10.1016/S0022‑5371(63)80087‑0
     https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-5371(63)80087-0 [Google Scholar]
  26. Morton, Thomas
    2005 Sociolinguistic variation and language change: in El Palenque de San Basilio (Colombia). Ph.D. dissertation, University of Pennsylvania.
     [Google Scholar]
  27. Myers-Scotton, Carol
    1993 Dueling languages: grammatical structure in codeswitching. Oxford: Clarendon.
     [Google Scholar]
  28. Orfitelli, Robyn & Maria Polinsky
    . Forthcoming. “When performance masquerades as comprehension: Assessing grammaticality in non-L1 populations”. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition.
     [Google Scholar]
  29. Pérez Tejedor, Juana Pabla
    2004 El criollo de Palenque de San Basilio: una visión estructural de su lengua.Bogotá: Universidad de los Andes, Centro Colombiano de Estudios de Lenguas Aborígenes.
     [Google Scholar]
  30. Pienemann, Manfred , Bruno Di Biase , Salomi Kawaguchi & Gisela Håkansson
    2005 “Processing constraints on L1 transfer”. Handbook of bilingualism: psycholinguistic approachesed. by Judith Kroll & Annette M.B. de Groot , 128–153. New York: Oxford University Press.
     [Google Scholar]
  31. Rickford, John
    1987 Dimensions of a creole continuum. Stanford: Stanford University Press.
     [Google Scholar]
  32. Schwegler, Armin
    1996 “Chi ma nkongo”: lengua y rito ancestrales en El Palenque de San Basilio (Colombia).Frankfurt: Vervuert. 2 vols.
     [Google Scholar]
  33. 2002 “On the (African) origins of Palenquero subject pronouns”. Diachronica19:2.273–332. doi: 10.1075/dia.19.2.03sch
     https://doi.org/10.1075/dia.19.2.03sch [Google Scholar]
  34. Schwegler, Armin & Thomas Morton
    2003 “Vernacular Spanish in a microcosm: Kateyano in El Palenque de San Basilio (Colombia)”. Revista Internacional de Lingüística Iberoamericana1.97–159.
     [Google Scholar]
  35. Simarra Obeso, Rutsely , Regina Miranda Reyes & Juana Pabla Pérez Tejedor
    2008 Lengua ri Palenge jende suto ta chitiá. Cartagena de Indias: Casa Editorial C. I. Organización Digital.
     [Google Scholar]
  36. Simarra Reyes, Luís & Álvaro Enrique Triviño Doval
    2008 Gramática de la lengua palenquera: introducción para principiantes. Cartagena de Indias: Grafipapel.
     [Google Scholar]
  37. Spencer, N.J
    1973 “Differences between linguists and nonlinguists in intuitions of grammaticality-acceptability”. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research2.83–98. doi: 10.1007/BF01067203
     https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01067203 [Google Scholar]
  38. Treisman, Anne
    1965 “The effects of redundancy and familiarity on translating and repeating back a foreign and a native language”. British Journal of Psychology56.369–379. doi: 10.1111/j.2044‑8295.1965.tb00979.x
     https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8295.1965.tb00979.x [Google Scholar]
  39. Urueta, José P
    1890 Documentos para la historia de Cartagena, v. 3. Cartagena: Tipografía de Aranjo.
     [Google Scholar]
  40. van Heuven, Walter , Herbert Schriefers , Ton Dijkstra & Peter Hagoort
    2008 “Language conflict in the bilingual brain”. Cerebral Cortex18.2706–2716. doi: 10.1093/cercor/bhn030
     https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/bhn030 [Google Scholar]
  41. Vinther, Thora
    2002 “Elicited imitation: a brief overview”. International Journal of Applied Linguistics12.54–73. doi: 10.1111/1473‑4192.00024
     https://doi.org/10.1111/1473-4192.00024 [Google Scholar]
  42. Washabaugh, William
    1977 “Constraining variation in decreolization”. Language53.329–352. doi: 10.1353/lan.1977.0013
     https://doi.org/10.1353/lan.1977.0013 [Google Scholar]
  43. Winford, Donald
    1997 “Re-examining Caribbean English creole continua”. World Englishes16.233–279. doi: 10.1111/1467‑971X.00061
     https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-971X.00061 [Google Scholar]

References

  1. Antón-Méndez, Inés
    2011 “Whose? L2-English speakers’ possessive pronoun gender errors”. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition14.318–331. doi: 10.1017/S1366728910000325
     https://doi.org/10.1017/S1366728910000325 [Google Scholar]
  2. Azuma, Shoji & Richard Meier
    1997 “Open class and closed class: sentence-imitation experiments on intrasential code-switching”. Applied Psycholinguistics18.257–276. doi: 10.1017/S014271640001047X
     https://doi.org/10.1017/S014271640001047X [Google Scholar]
  3. Bickerton, Derek
    1980 “Decreolisation and the creole continuum”. Theoretical orientations in creole studiesed. by Albert Valdman & Arnold Highfield , 109–127. New York: Academic Press.
     [Google Scholar]
  4. Bickerton, Derek & Aquiles Escalante
    1970 “Palenquero: a Spanish ‑based creole of northern Colombia”. Lingua32.254‑67. doi: 10.1016/0024‑3841(70)90080‑X
     https://doi.org/10.1016/0024-3841(70)90080-X [Google Scholar]
  5. Boersma, Paul & David Weenink
    1999–2005 “PRAAT: Doing phonetics by computer.” www.fon.hum.uva.nl/praat/
  6. Bresnan, Joan
    2007 “Is syntactic knowledge probabilistic? Experiments with English dative alternation”. Roots: linguistics in search of its evidential baseed. by Sam Featherston & Wolfgang Sternefeld , 75–96. Berlin & New York: Mouton de Gruyter.
     [Google Scholar]
  7. Cásseres Estrada, Solmery
    2005 Diccionario lengua afro palenquero-español. Cartagena de Indias: Ediciones Pluma de Mompox.
     [Google Scholar]
  8. Clyne, Michael
    1972 “Perception of code-switching by bilinguals: an experiment”. ITL: Review of Applied Linguistics16.45–48.
     [Google Scholar]
  9. De Camp, David
    1971 “Towards a generative analysis of a post-creole continuum”. Pidginization and creolization of languagesed. by Dell Hymes , 349–370. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
     [Google Scholar]
  10. Ellis, Rod
    1991 “Grammaticality judgments and second language acquisition”. Studies in Second Language Acquisition13.161–186. doi: 10.1017/S0272263100009931
     https://doi.org/10.1017/S0272263100009931 [Google Scholar]
  11. Friedemann, Nina S. de & Carlos Patiño Rosselli
    1983 Lengua y sociedad en el Palenque de San Basilio. Bogotá: Instituto Caro y Cuervo.
     [Google Scholar]
  12. Grosjean, François & James Paul Gee
    1987 “Prosodic structure and spoken word recognition”. Cognition25.135–155. doi: 10.1016/0010‑0277(87)90007‑2
     https://doi.org/10.1016/0010-0277(87)90007-2 [Google Scholar]
  13. Gullberg, Marianne , Peter Indefrey & Pieter Muysken
    2009 “Research techniques for the study of code-switching”. The Cambridge handbook of linguistic code-switchinged. by Barbara Bullock & Almeida Jacqueline Toribio , 21–39. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi: 10.1017/CBO9780511576331.003
     https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511576331.003 [Google Scholar]
  14. Hualde, José Ignacio & Armin Schwegler
    2008 “Intonation in Palenquero”. Journal of Pidgin and Creole Languages23.1–31. doi: 10.1075/jpcl.23.1.02hua
     https://doi.org/10.1075/jpcl.23.1.02hua [Google Scholar]
  15. Kroll, Judith , Susan Bobb , Mayra Misra & Taomei Guo
    2008 “Language selection in bilingual speech: evidence for inhibitory processes”. Acta Psychologica128.416–430. doi: 10.1016/j.actpsy.2008.02.001
     https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actpsy.2008.02.001 [Google Scholar]
  16. Kroll, Judith , Paola Dussias , Carrie Bogulski & Jorge Valdes Kroft
    2011 “Juggling two languages in one mind: what bilinguals tell us about language processing and its consequences for cognition”. Psychology of Learning and Motivation56.229–262. doi: 10.1016/B978‑0‑12‑394393‑4.00007‑8
     https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-394393-4.00007-8 [Google Scholar]
  17. Lewis, Anthony
    1970 A descriptive analysis of the Palenquero dialect (a Spanish-based creole of northern Colombia, South America). M.A. thesis, University of the West Indies, Mona, Jamaica.
     [Google Scholar]
  18. Lipski, John
    2010 “Pitch polarity in Palenquero: a possible locus of H tone”. Linguistic studies in Romance languagesed. by Sonia Colina , 111–127. Amsterdam & Philadelphia: John Benjamins. doi: 10.1075/cilt.315.07lip
     https://doi.org/10.1075/cilt.315.07lip [Google Scholar]
  19. 2011 “Decreolization as emergent grammar(s): some Afro-Bolivian data”. Journal of Pidgin and Creole Languages26.276–340. doi: 10.1075/jpcl.26.2.03lip
     https://doi.org/10.1075/jpcl.26.2.03lip [Google Scholar]
  20. 2012a “The ‘new’ Palenquero: revitalization and re-creolization”. Varieties of Colombian Spanished. by Richard File-Muriel & Rafael Orozco , 21–41. Frankfurt & Madrid: Vervuert.
     [Google Scholar]
  21. 2012b “Free at last: from bound morpheme to discourse marker in Lengua ri Palenge (Palenquero Creole Spanish)”. Anthropological Linguistics54.101–132. doi: 10.1353/anl.2012.0007
     https://doi.org/10.1353/anl.2012.0007 [Google Scholar]
  22. Marslen-Wilson, William
    1985 “Speech shadowing and speech comprehension”. Speech Communication4.55–73. doi: 10.1016/0167‑6393(85)90036‑6
     https://doi.org/10.1016/0167-6393(85)90036-6 [Google Scholar]
  23. Megenney, William
    1986 El palenquero: un lenguaje post-criollo colombiano. Bogotá: Instituto Caro y Cuervo.
     [Google Scholar]
  24. Meijer, Paul & Jean Fox Tree
    2003 “Building syntactic structures in speaking: a bilingual exploration”. Experimental Psychology50:3.184–195. doi: 10.1026//1617‑3169.50.3.184
     https://doi.org/10.1026//1617-3169.50.3.184 [Google Scholar]
  25. Miller, George & Stephen Isard
    1963 “Some perceptual consequences of linguistic rules”. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior2.217–228. doi: 10.1016/S0022‑5371(63)80087‑0
     https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-5371(63)80087-0 [Google Scholar]
  26. Morton, Thomas
    2005 Sociolinguistic variation and language change: in El Palenque de San Basilio (Colombia). Ph.D. dissertation, University of Pennsylvania.
     [Google Scholar]
  27. Myers-Scotton, Carol
    1993 Dueling languages: grammatical structure in codeswitching. Oxford: Clarendon.
     [Google Scholar]
  28. Orfitelli, Robyn & Maria Polinsky
    . Forthcoming. “When performance masquerades as comprehension: Assessing grammaticality in non-L1 populations”. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition.
     [Google Scholar]
  29. Pérez Tejedor, Juana Pabla
    2004 El criollo de Palenque de San Basilio: una visión estructural de su lengua.Bogotá: Universidad de los Andes, Centro Colombiano de Estudios de Lenguas Aborígenes.
     [Google Scholar]
  30. Pienemann, Manfred , Bruno Di Biase , Salomi Kawaguchi & Gisela Håkansson
    2005 “Processing constraints on L1 transfer”. Handbook of bilingualism: psycholinguistic approachesed. by Judith Kroll & Annette M.B. de Groot , 128–153. New York: Oxford University Press.
     [Google Scholar]
  31. Rickford, John
    1987 Dimensions of a creole continuum. Stanford: Stanford University Press.
     [Google Scholar]
  32. Schwegler, Armin
    1996 “Chi ma nkongo”: lengua y rito ancestrales en El Palenque de San Basilio (Colombia).Frankfurt: Vervuert. 2 vols.
     [Google Scholar]
  33. 2002 “On the (African) origins of Palenquero subject pronouns”. Diachronica19:2.273–332. doi: 10.1075/dia.19.2.03sch
     https://doi.org/10.1075/dia.19.2.03sch [Google Scholar]
  34. Schwegler, Armin & Thomas Morton
    2003 “Vernacular Spanish in a microcosm: Kateyano in El Palenque de San Basilio (Colombia)”. Revista Internacional de Lingüística Iberoamericana1.97–159.
     [Google Scholar]
  35. Simarra Obeso, Rutsely , Regina Miranda Reyes & Juana Pabla Pérez Tejedor
    2008 Lengua ri Palenge jende suto ta chitiá. Cartagena de Indias: Casa Editorial C. I. Organización Digital.
     [Google Scholar]
  36. Simarra Reyes, Luís & Álvaro Enrique Triviño Doval
    2008 Gramática de la lengua palenquera: introducción para principiantes. Cartagena de Indias: Grafipapel.
     [Google Scholar]
  37. Spencer, N.J
    1973 “Differences between linguists and nonlinguists in intuitions of grammaticality-acceptability”. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research2.83–98. doi: 10.1007/BF01067203
     https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01067203 [Google Scholar]
  38. Treisman, Anne
    1965 “The effects of redundancy and familiarity on translating and repeating back a foreign and a native language”. British Journal of Psychology56.369–379. doi: 10.1111/j.2044‑8295.1965.tb00979.x
     https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8295.1965.tb00979.x [Google Scholar]
  39. Urueta, José P
    1890 Documentos para la historia de Cartagena, v. 3. Cartagena: Tipografía de Aranjo.
     [Google Scholar]
  40. van Heuven, Walter , Herbert Schriefers , Ton Dijkstra & Peter Hagoort
    2008 “Language conflict in the bilingual brain”. Cerebral Cortex18.2706–2716. doi: 10.1093/cercor/bhn030
     https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/bhn030 [Google Scholar]
  41. Vinther, Thora
    2002 “Elicited imitation: a brief overview”. International Journal of Applied Linguistics12.54–73. doi: 10.1111/1473‑4192.00024
     https://doi.org/10.1111/1473-4192.00024 [Google Scholar]
  42. Washabaugh, William
    1977 “Constraining variation in decreolization”. Language53.329–352. doi: 10.1353/lan.1977.0013
     https://doi.org/10.1353/lan.1977.0013 [Google Scholar]
  43. Winford, Donald
    1997 “Re-examining Caribbean English creole continua”. World Englishes16.233–279. doi: 10.1111/1467‑971X.00061
     https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-971X.00061 [Google Scholar]

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