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Beyond “elicit and run” metaphor research

Why conversations within and between levels of participants matter

image of Beyond “elicit and run” metaphor research

This chapter argues that facilitating conversations within and between different levels of participants (e.g., students and teachers) is an important new direction for metaphor research. To illustrate the usefulness of conversations within/between levels, this chapter describes a conversation-based study of the elicited writing metaphors of 140 U.S. university students and their teachers. Students and teachers reported increased rapport with each other, gained new insights into their own and others’ writing processes, and often revised their own views of writing or teaching as a result. The hope is that this chapter will spark additional metaphor research using conversation as a tool for communication and negotiation among participants.

  • Affiliations: 1: Buena Vista University, English Department

References

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    (2008) Using metaphor analysis to uncover learners’ conceptualizations of academic literacies in postsecondary developmental contexts. The International Journal of Learning, 15(9), 211–218.
     [Google Scholar]
  2. (2011) Mountains and pit bulls: Students’ metaphors for college transitional reading and writing. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 54(7), 494–503. doi: 10.1598/JAAL.54.7.3
     https://doi.org/10.1598/JAAL.54.7.3 [Google Scholar]
  3. Bartholomae, D
    (2003) Inventing the university. In V. Villanueva (Ed.), Cross-talk in comp theory: A reader (2nd ed.) (pp. 623–654). Urbana, IL: NCTE.
     [Google Scholar]
  4. Boice, R
    (1990) Professors as writers: A self-help guide to productive writing. Stillwater, MN: New Forums Press.
     [Google Scholar]
  5. BouJaoude, S
    (2000) Conceptions of science teaching revealed by metaphors and by answers to open-ended questions. Journal of Science Teacher Education, 11(2), 173–186. doi: 10.1023/A:1009477010693
     https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1009477010693 [Google Scholar]
  6. Bozlk, M
    (2002) The college student as learner: Insight gained through metaphor analysis. College Student Journal, 36(1), 142–152.
     [Google Scholar]
  7. Briscoe, C
    (1991) The dynamic interactions among beliefs, role metaphors, and teaching practices: A case study of teacher change. Science Education, 75(2), 185–199. doi: 10.1002/sce.3730750204
     https://doi.org/10.1002/sce.3730750204 [Google Scholar]
  8. Bullough, R.V
    (1991) Exploring personal teaching metaphors in preservice teacher education. Journal of Teacher Education, 42(1), 43–51. doi: 10.1177/002248719104200107
     https://doi.org/10.1177/002248719104200107 [Google Scholar]
  9. Burke, K
    (1974) The philosophy of literary form (3rd ed.). Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
     [Google Scholar]
  10. Cameron, L. , & Low, G.D
    (1999) Metaphor: Survey article. Language Teaching, 32, 77–96. doi: 10.1017/S0261444800013781
     https://doi.org/10.1017/S0261444800013781 [Google Scholar]
  11. Chen, D
    (2003) A classification system for metaphors about teaching. The Journal of Physical Education, Recreation, and Dance, 74(2), 24–32. doi: 10.1080/07303084.2003.10608375
     https://doi.org/10.1080/07303084.2003.10608375 [Google Scholar]
  12. Clark, K. , & Cunningham, D.J
    (1999) Metaphors we teach by: An embodied cognitive analysis of No Child Left Behind . Semiotica, 161(1), 265–289.
     [Google Scholar]
  13. Cortazzi, M. , & Jin, L
    (1999) Bridges to learning: Metaphors of teaching, learning and language. In L. Cameron & G.D. Low (Eds.), Researching and applying metaphor (pp. 149–176). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. doi: 10.1017/CBO9781139524704.011
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  14. Daiker, D
    (1989) Learning to praise. In C.M. Anson (Ed.), Writing and response: Theory, practice, and research (pp.103–113). Urbana, IL: NCTE.
     [Google Scholar]
  15. Dooley, C
    (1998) Teaching as a two-way street: Discontinuities among metaphors, images, and classroom realities. Journal of Teacher Education, 49(2), 97–108. doi: 10.1177/0022487198049002003
     https://doi.org/10.1177/0022487198049002003 [Google Scholar]
  16. Docan-Morgan, T
    (2011) ‘Everything changed’: Relational turning point events in college teacher-student relationships from teachers’ perspectives. Communication Education, 60(1), 20-50. doi: 10.1080/03634523.2010.497223
     https://doi.org/10.1080/03634523.2010.497223 [Google Scholar]
  17. Docan-Morgan, T. , & Manusov, V
    (2009) Relational turning point events and their outcomes in college teacher-student relationships from students’ perspectives. Communication Education, 58(2), 155-188. doi: 10.1080/03634520802515713
     https://doi.org/10.1080/03634520802515713 [Google Scholar]
  18. Elbow, P
    (1973) Writing without teachers. New York: Oxford University Press.
     [Google Scholar]
  19. Farrell, T.C
    (2006) ‘The teacher is an octopus’: Uncovering preservice English language teachers’ prior beliefs through metaphor analysis. Regional English Language Center Journal, 37(2), 236–248.
     [Google Scholar]
  20. Fox, T
    (1990) The social uses of writing: Politics and pedagogy. Santa Barbara, CA: Praeger.
     [Google Scholar]
  21. Gardner, T
    (2008) Designing writing assignments. Urbana, IL: NCTE.
     [Google Scholar]
  22. Gillis, C. , & Johnson, C.J
    (2002) Metaphor as renewal: Re-imagining our professional selves. English Journal, 91(6), 37–43. doi: 10.2307/821814
     https://doi.org/10.2307/821814 [Google Scholar]
  23. Guerrero, M.C.M. de , & Villamil, O.S
    (2002) Metaphorical conceptualizations of ESL teaching and learning. Language Teaching Research, 6(2), 95–120. doi: 10.1191/1362168802lr101oa
     https://doi.org/10.1191/1362168802lr101oa [Google Scholar]
  24. Hagstrom, D. , Hubbard, R. , Hurtig, C. , Mortola, P. , Ostrow, J. , & White, V
    (2000) Teaching is like…?Educational Leadership, 57, 24–27.
     [Google Scholar]
  25. Hart, G.A
    (2009) Composing metaphors: Metaphors for writing in the composition classroom. Unpublished PhD dissertation, Ohio University, Ohio.
     [Google Scholar]
  26. Hutton, J.G
    (2005) The feel-good society: How the ‘customer’ metaphor is undermining American education, religion, media, and healthcare. West Patterson, NJ: Pentagram Publishing.
     [Google Scholar]
  27. Inbar, D.E
    (1996) The free metaphorical prison: Metaphors and images. Educational Research, 38(1), 77–92. doi: 10.1080/0013188960380106
     https://doi.org/10.1080/0013188960380106 [Google Scholar]
  28. Lakoff, G. , & Johnson, M
    (1980/2003) Metaphors we live by. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
     [Google Scholar]
  29. Lamott, A
    (1995) Bird by bird: Some instructions on writing and life. New York: Anchor.
     [Google Scholar]
  30. Low, G.D
    (1999) Validating metaphor research projects. In L. Cameron & G.D. Low (Eds.), Researching and applying metaphor (pp. 48–65). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. doi: 10.1017/CBO9781139524704.006
     https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139524704.006 [Google Scholar]
  31. Macrorie, K
    (1976) Telling writing (2nd ed.). Rochelle Park, NJ: Hayden Book Company.
     [Google Scholar]
  32. Marchant, G.J
    (1992) “A teacher is like a…”: Using simile lists to explore personal metaphors. Language and Education, 6(1), 33–45. doi: 10.1080/09500789209541323
     https://doi.org/10.1080/09500789209541323 [Google Scholar]
  33. Marshall, H.H
    (1990) Metaphor as an instructional tool in encouraging student-teacher reflection. Theory into Practice, 29(2), 128–132. doi: 10.1080/00405849009543443
     https://doi.org/10.1080/00405849009543443 [Google Scholar]
  34. Martinez, C. , Kock, N. , & Cass, J
    (2011) Pain and pleasure in short essay writing: Factors predicting university students’ writing anxiety and writing self-efficacy. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 54(5), 351–360. doi: 10.1598/JAAL.54.5.5
     https://doi.org/10.1598/JAAL.54.5.5 [Google Scholar]
  35. McDonald, J.C
    (1992) Student metaphors for themselves as writers. The English Journal, 81(4), 60–64. doi: 10.2307/819934
     https://doi.org/10.2307/819934 [Google Scholar]
  36. Murray, D
    (1984) Writing and teaching for surprise. College English, 46(1), 1–7. doi: 10.2307/376758
     https://doi.org/10.2307/376758 [Google Scholar]
  37. Murray, D.S
    (2014) Navigating toward andragogy: Coordination and management of student-professor conversations. Western Journal of Communication, 78(3), 310–336. doi: 10.1080/10570314.2013.866687
     https://doi.org/10.1080/10570314.2013.866687 [Google Scholar]
  38. Oxford, R. , Tomlinson, S. , Barcelos, A. , Harrington, C. , Lavine, R.Z. , Saleh, A. , & Longhini, A
    (1998) Clashing metaphors about classroom teachers: Toward a systematic typology for the language teaching field. System, 26(1), 3–50. doi: 10.1016/S0346‑251X(97)00071‑7
     https://doi.org/10.1016/S0346-251X(97)00071-7 [Google Scholar]
  39. Rose, M
    (2003) The language of exclusion; Writing instruction at the university. In V. Villanueva (Ed.), Cross-talk in comp theory: A reader (2nd ed.) (pp. 547–570). Urbana, IL: NCTE.
     [Google Scholar]
  40. Schön, D.A
    (1993) Generative metaphor: A perspective on problem-setting as social policy. In A. Ortony (Ed.), Metaphor and thought (2nd ed.) (pp. 137–163). New York: Cambridge University Press. doi: 10.1017/CBO9781139173865.011
     https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139173865.011 [Google Scholar]
  41. Sfard, A
    (1998) On two metaphors for learning and the dangers of choosing just one. Educational Researcher, 27(2), 4–13. doi: 10.3102/0013189X027002004
     https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X027002004 [Google Scholar]
  42. Shaw, D. , & Mahlios, M
    (2011) Literacy metaphors of pre-service teachers: Do they change after instruction? Which metaphors are stable? How do they connect to theories?Journal of Education for Teaching, 37(1), 77–92. doi: 10.1080/02607476.2011.538274
     https://doi.org/10.1080/02607476.2011.538274 [Google Scholar]
  43. Seferoğlu, G. , Korkmazgil, S. , & Ölçü, Z
    (2009) Gaining insights into teachers’ ways of thinking via metaphors. Educational Studies, 35(3), 323–335. doi: 10.1080/03055690802648135
     https://doi.org/10.1080/03055690802648135 [Google Scholar]
  44. Steen, G.J
    (2007) Finding metaphor in grammar and usage. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. doi: 10.1075/celcr.10
     https://doi.org/10.1075/celcr.10 [Google Scholar]
  45. Stenberg, S
    (2002) Learning to change: The development of a (basic) writer and her teacher. Journal of Basic Writing, 21(2), 37–55.
     [Google Scholar]
  46. Tobin, K
    (1990) Changing metaphors and beliefs: A master switch for teaching?Theory into Practice, 29(2), 122–127. doi: 10.1080/00405849009543442
     https://doi.org/10.1080/00405849009543442 [Google Scholar]
  47. Tobin, L
    (1989) Bridging gaps: Analyzing our students’ metaphors for composing. College Composition and Communication, 40(4), 444–458. doi: 10.2307/358243
     https://doi.org/10.2307/358243 [Google Scholar]
  48. Thornbury, S
    (1991) Metaphors we work by: EFL and its metaphors. EFL Journal, 45(3), 193–200.
     [Google Scholar]
  49. Wallace, S
    (2001) Guardian angels and teachers from hell: Using metaphors as a measure of schools’ experiences and expectations of general national vocational qualifications. Qualitative Studies in Education, 14(6), 727–739. doi: 10.1080/09518390110078404
     https://doi.org/10.1080/09518390110078404 [Google Scholar]
  50. Wan, W
    (2011) An examination of the validity of metaphor analysis studies: Problems with metaphor elicitation techniques. Metaphor and the Social World, 1(2), 261–288. doi: 10.1075/msw.1.2.07wan
     https://doi.org/10.1075/msw.1.2.07wan [Google Scholar]
  51. Wan, W. , Low, G.D. , & Li, M
    (2011) From students’ and teachers’ perspectives: Metaphor analysis of beliefs about EFL teachers’ roles. System, 39(3), 403–415. doi: 10.1016/j.system.2011.07.012
     https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2011.07.012 [Google Scholar]
  52. White, B. , & Smith, M.W
    (1994) Metaphors in education: Putting things in perspective. English Education, 26(3), 157–176.
     [Google Scholar]
  53. Whitney, A
    (2008) Teacher transformation in the National Writing Project. Research in the Teaching of English, 43(2), 144–187.
     [Google Scholar]
  54. Woodrow, L
    (2011) College English writing affect: Self-efficacy and anxiety. System, 39(4), 510–522. doi: 10.1016/j.system.2011.10.017
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References

  1. Armstrong, S.L
    (2008) Using metaphor analysis to uncover learners’ conceptualizations of academic literacies in postsecondary developmental contexts. The International Journal of Learning, 15(9), 211–218.
     [Google Scholar]
  2. (2011) Mountains and pit bulls: Students’ metaphors for college transitional reading and writing. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 54(7), 494–503. doi: 10.1598/JAAL.54.7.3
     https://doi.org/10.1598/JAAL.54.7.3 [Google Scholar]
  3. Bartholomae, D
    (2003) Inventing the university. In V. Villanueva (Ed.), Cross-talk in comp theory: A reader (2nd ed.) (pp. 623–654). Urbana, IL: NCTE.
     [Google Scholar]
  4. Boice, R
    (1990) Professors as writers: A self-help guide to productive writing. Stillwater, MN: New Forums Press.
     [Google Scholar]
  5. BouJaoude, S
    (2000) Conceptions of science teaching revealed by metaphors and by answers to open-ended questions. Journal of Science Teacher Education, 11(2), 173–186. doi: 10.1023/A:1009477010693
     https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1009477010693 [Google Scholar]
  6. Bozlk, M
    (2002) The college student as learner: Insight gained through metaphor analysis. College Student Journal, 36(1), 142–152.
     [Google Scholar]
  7. Briscoe, C
    (1991) The dynamic interactions among beliefs, role metaphors, and teaching practices: A case study of teacher change. Science Education, 75(2), 185–199. doi: 10.1002/sce.3730750204
     https://doi.org/10.1002/sce.3730750204 [Google Scholar]
  8. Bullough, R.V
    (1991) Exploring personal teaching metaphors in preservice teacher education. Journal of Teacher Education, 42(1), 43–51. doi: 10.1177/002248719104200107
     https://doi.org/10.1177/002248719104200107 [Google Scholar]
  9. Burke, K
    (1974) The philosophy of literary form (3rd ed.). Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
     [Google Scholar]
  10. Cameron, L. , & Low, G.D
    (1999) Metaphor: Survey article. Language Teaching, 32, 77–96. doi: 10.1017/S0261444800013781
     https://doi.org/10.1017/S0261444800013781 [Google Scholar]
  11. Chen, D
    (2003) A classification system for metaphors about teaching. The Journal of Physical Education, Recreation, and Dance, 74(2), 24–32. doi: 10.1080/07303084.2003.10608375
     https://doi.org/10.1080/07303084.2003.10608375 [Google Scholar]
  12. Clark, K. , & Cunningham, D.J
    (1999) Metaphors we teach by: An embodied cognitive analysis of No Child Left Behind . Semiotica, 161(1), 265–289.
     [Google Scholar]
  13. Cortazzi, M. , & Jin, L
    (1999) Bridges to learning: Metaphors of teaching, learning and language. In L. Cameron & G.D. Low (Eds.), Researching and applying metaphor (pp. 149–176). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. doi: 10.1017/CBO9781139524704.011
     https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139524704.011 [Google Scholar]
  14. Daiker, D
    (1989) Learning to praise. In C.M. Anson (Ed.), Writing and response: Theory, practice, and research (pp.103–113). Urbana, IL: NCTE.
     [Google Scholar]
  15. Dooley, C
    (1998) Teaching as a two-way street: Discontinuities among metaphors, images, and classroom realities. Journal of Teacher Education, 49(2), 97–108. doi: 10.1177/0022487198049002003
     https://doi.org/10.1177/0022487198049002003 [Google Scholar]
  16. Docan-Morgan, T
    (2011) ‘Everything changed’: Relational turning point events in college teacher-student relationships from teachers’ perspectives. Communication Education, 60(1), 20-50. doi: 10.1080/03634523.2010.497223
     https://doi.org/10.1080/03634523.2010.497223 [Google Scholar]
  17. Docan-Morgan, T. , & Manusov, V
    (2009) Relational turning point events and their outcomes in college teacher-student relationships from students’ perspectives. Communication Education, 58(2), 155-188. doi: 10.1080/03634520802515713
     https://doi.org/10.1080/03634520802515713 [Google Scholar]
  18. Elbow, P
    (1973) Writing without teachers. New York: Oxford University Press.
     [Google Scholar]
  19. Farrell, T.C
    (2006) ‘The teacher is an octopus’: Uncovering preservice English language teachers’ prior beliefs through metaphor analysis. Regional English Language Center Journal, 37(2), 236–248.
     [Google Scholar]
  20. Fox, T
    (1990) The social uses of writing: Politics and pedagogy. Santa Barbara, CA: Praeger.
     [Google Scholar]
  21. Gardner, T
    (2008) Designing writing assignments. Urbana, IL: NCTE.
     [Google Scholar]
  22. Gillis, C. , & Johnson, C.J
    (2002) Metaphor as renewal: Re-imagining our professional selves. English Journal, 91(6), 37–43. doi: 10.2307/821814
     https://doi.org/10.2307/821814 [Google Scholar]
  23. Guerrero, M.C.M. de , & Villamil, O.S
    (2002) Metaphorical conceptualizations of ESL teaching and learning. Language Teaching Research, 6(2), 95–120. doi: 10.1191/1362168802lr101oa
     https://doi.org/10.1191/1362168802lr101oa [Google Scholar]
  24. Hagstrom, D. , Hubbard, R. , Hurtig, C. , Mortola, P. , Ostrow, J. , & White, V
    (2000) Teaching is like…?Educational Leadership, 57, 24–27.
     [Google Scholar]
  25. Hart, G.A
    (2009) Composing metaphors: Metaphors for writing in the composition classroom. Unpublished PhD dissertation, Ohio University, Ohio.
     [Google Scholar]
  26. Hutton, J.G
    (2005) The feel-good society: How the ‘customer’ metaphor is undermining American education, religion, media, and healthcare. West Patterson, NJ: Pentagram Publishing.
     [Google Scholar]
  27. Inbar, D.E
    (1996) The free metaphorical prison: Metaphors and images. Educational Research, 38(1), 77–92. doi: 10.1080/0013188960380106
     https://doi.org/10.1080/0013188960380106 [Google Scholar]
  28. Lakoff, G. , & Johnson, M
    (1980/2003) Metaphors we live by. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
     [Google Scholar]
  29. Lamott, A
    (1995) Bird by bird: Some instructions on writing and life. New York: Anchor.
     [Google Scholar]
  30. Low, G.D
    (1999) Validating metaphor research projects. In L. Cameron & G.D. Low (Eds.), Researching and applying metaphor (pp. 48–65). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. doi: 10.1017/CBO9781139524704.006
     https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139524704.006 [Google Scholar]
  31. Macrorie, K
    (1976) Telling writing (2nd ed.). Rochelle Park, NJ: Hayden Book Company.
     [Google Scholar]
  32. Marchant, G.J
    (1992) “A teacher is like a…”: Using simile lists to explore personal metaphors. Language and Education, 6(1), 33–45. doi: 10.1080/09500789209541323
     https://doi.org/10.1080/09500789209541323 [Google Scholar]
  33. Marshall, H.H
    (1990) Metaphor as an instructional tool in encouraging student-teacher reflection. Theory into Practice, 29(2), 128–132. doi: 10.1080/00405849009543443
     https://doi.org/10.1080/00405849009543443 [Google Scholar]
  34. Martinez, C. , Kock, N. , & Cass, J
    (2011) Pain and pleasure in short essay writing: Factors predicting university students’ writing anxiety and writing self-efficacy. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 54(5), 351–360. doi: 10.1598/JAAL.54.5.5
     https://doi.org/10.1598/JAAL.54.5.5 [Google Scholar]
  35. McDonald, J.C
    (1992) Student metaphors for themselves as writers. The English Journal, 81(4), 60–64. doi: 10.2307/819934
     https://doi.org/10.2307/819934 [Google Scholar]
  36. Murray, D
    (1984) Writing and teaching for surprise. College English, 46(1), 1–7. doi: 10.2307/376758
     https://doi.org/10.2307/376758 [Google Scholar]
  37. Murray, D.S
    (2014) Navigating toward andragogy: Coordination and management of student-professor conversations. Western Journal of Communication, 78(3), 310–336. doi: 10.1080/10570314.2013.866687
     https://doi.org/10.1080/10570314.2013.866687 [Google Scholar]
  38. Oxford, R. , Tomlinson, S. , Barcelos, A. , Harrington, C. , Lavine, R.Z. , Saleh, A. , & Longhini, A
    (1998) Clashing metaphors about classroom teachers: Toward a systematic typology for the language teaching field. System, 26(1), 3–50. doi: 10.1016/S0346‑251X(97)00071‑7
     https://doi.org/10.1016/S0346-251X(97)00071-7 [Google Scholar]
  39. Rose, M
    (2003) The language of exclusion; Writing instruction at the university. In V. Villanueva (Ed.), Cross-talk in comp theory: A reader (2nd ed.) (pp. 547–570). Urbana, IL: NCTE.
     [Google Scholar]
  40. Schön, D.A
    (1993) Generative metaphor: A perspective on problem-setting as social policy. In A. Ortony (Ed.), Metaphor and thought (2nd ed.) (pp. 137–163). New York: Cambridge University Press. doi: 10.1017/CBO9781139173865.011
     https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139173865.011 [Google Scholar]
  41. Sfard, A
    (1998) On two metaphors for learning and the dangers of choosing just one. Educational Researcher, 27(2), 4–13. doi: 10.3102/0013189X027002004
     https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X027002004 [Google Scholar]
  42. Shaw, D. , & Mahlios, M
    (2011) Literacy metaphors of pre-service teachers: Do they change after instruction? Which metaphors are stable? How do they connect to theories?Journal of Education for Teaching, 37(1), 77–92. doi: 10.1080/02607476.2011.538274
     https://doi.org/10.1080/02607476.2011.538274 [Google Scholar]
  43. Seferoğlu, G. , Korkmazgil, S. , & Ölçü, Z
    (2009) Gaining insights into teachers’ ways of thinking via metaphors. Educational Studies, 35(3), 323–335. doi: 10.1080/03055690802648135
     https://doi.org/10.1080/03055690802648135 [Google Scholar]
  44. Steen, G.J
    (2007) Finding metaphor in grammar and usage. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. doi: 10.1075/celcr.10
     https://doi.org/10.1075/celcr.10 [Google Scholar]
  45. Stenberg, S
    (2002) Learning to change: The development of a (basic) writer and her teacher. Journal of Basic Writing, 21(2), 37–55.
     [Google Scholar]
  46. Tobin, K
    (1990) Changing metaphors and beliefs: A master switch for teaching?Theory into Practice, 29(2), 122–127. doi: 10.1080/00405849009543442
     https://doi.org/10.1080/00405849009543442 [Google Scholar]
  47. Tobin, L
    (1989) Bridging gaps: Analyzing our students’ metaphors for composing. College Composition and Communication, 40(4), 444–458. doi: 10.2307/358243
     https://doi.org/10.2307/358243 [Google Scholar]
  48. Thornbury, S
    (1991) Metaphors we work by: EFL and its metaphors. EFL Journal, 45(3), 193–200.
     [Google Scholar]
  49. Wallace, S
    (2001) Guardian angels and teachers from hell: Using metaphors as a measure of schools’ experiences and expectations of general national vocational qualifications. Qualitative Studies in Education, 14(6), 727–739. doi: 10.1080/09518390110078404
     https://doi.org/10.1080/09518390110078404 [Google Scholar]
  50. Wan, W
    (2011) An examination of the validity of metaphor analysis studies: Problems with metaphor elicitation techniques. Metaphor and the Social World, 1(2), 261–288. doi: 10.1075/msw.1.2.07wan
     https://doi.org/10.1075/msw.1.2.07wan [Google Scholar]
  51. Wan, W. , Low, G.D. , & Li, M
    (2011) From students’ and teachers’ perspectives: Metaphor analysis of beliefs about EFL teachers’ roles. System, 39(3), 403–415. doi: 10.1016/j.system.2011.07.012
     https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2011.07.012 [Google Scholar]
  52. White, B. , & Smith, M.W
    (1994) Metaphors in education: Putting things in perspective. English Education, 26(3), 157–176.
     [Google Scholar]
  53. Whitney, A
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