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Language in schooling in Timor-Leste

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Through its history of colonisation, occupation and independence, Timor-Leste has developed a unique linguistic ecology where official and other languages represent particular status and power in various domains. In the education system, Portuguese maintains a higher status and teachers aim to teach it, yet Tetum is used to enact vital roles that give students access to curriculum content. This paper looks at how the language policy in Timor-Leste has developed around the goals of a newly independent nation and contrasts this with how teachers have attempted to teach students within this policy. It suggests a re-focus on both languages as pedagogic aids, to develop the power of both languages to assist students in learning content and language.

  • Affiliations: 1: Australian Catholic University, Sydney

References

  1. Annamalai, E
    2003 Reflections on a language policy for multilingualism, Language Policy2: 113–132. doi: 10.1023/A:1024689217801
     https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1024689217801 [Google Scholar]
  2. Beazley, H
    1999 East Timor: Background briefing for project identification mission PIM. Canberra: Indonesian Project, Australian National University.
     [Google Scholar]
  3. Chowdhury, A
    2005 Consultancy Report on Institutional Assessment and Capacity Building Plan. Republic of Timor-Leste: Fundamental School Quality Project.
     [Google Scholar]
  4. Coulmas, F
    1984 Linguistic minorities and literacy. InLinguistic Minorities and Literacy: Language Policy Issues in Developing Countries, F. Coulmas (ed.), 5–20. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. doi: 10.1515/9783110865301
     https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110865301 [Google Scholar]
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    1995 Africa's Growth Tragedy: A Retrospective 1960-89 World Bank Policy Research Working Paper No. 1777. Washington DC: World Bank.
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  6. Eccles, L
    2000 East Timorese language policy and the language policies of other small Pacific nations. Studies in Languages and Cultures of East Timor3: 1–30.
     [Google Scholar]
  7. EMIS (Educational Management Information System) .
    2008. Map Series: Dropout and Retention Rates across 5 Regions for all School Sectors. Dili: Ministry of Education.
     [Google Scholar]
  8. ETPC (East Timor Planning Commission) .
    2002 East Timor National Development Plan. Dili: East Timor Planning Commission.
     [Google Scholar]
  9. Far Eastern Economic Review .
    2002 A tangle of tongues, The Far Eastern Economic ReviewApril 11, 2002, 50.
     [Google Scholar]
  10. Ferguson, G
    2003 Language Planning and Education. Edinburgh: EUP.
     [Google Scholar]
  11. FONGTIL (Forum Organisaun Non Governu Timor Loro’sae) & Rede Feto .
    2012 Civil society statement regarding the policy to introduce mother tongue as the language of instruction in pre-school through 4th year of primary education etan.org/etan/donate.htm (16January 2012).
  12. Glasser, B. & Strauss, A
    1967 The Discovery of Grounded Theory. Chicago IL: Aldine.
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  13. Gordon, R.G. Jr
    (ed) 2005 Ethnologue: Languages of the World, 15th edn. Dallas TX: SIL International.
     [Google Scholar]
  14. Herrera, J
    2004 Timor and Language. www.shlrc.mq.edu.au/~leccles/easttimor.html (14 July 2004).
     [Google Scholar]
  15. Heyward, M
    2005. Lafaek as a Tool to Support Education Improvements in East Timor A Study Conducted under the Fundamental School Quality Project TF 030630. Dili: Care International UK.
     [Google Scholar]
  16. Hill, H
    2003 Dispelling the myths of Timor. Arena62: 42–45.
     [Google Scholar]
  17. Hornberger, N.H. & Chick, J.K
    2001 Co-constructing school safetime: safetalk practices in Peruvian and South African classrooms. InVoices of Authority: Education and Linguistic Difference, M. Heller & M. Martin-Jones (eds), 31–56. Westport CT: Ablex.
     [Google Scholar]
  18. Hull, G
    2004 The Languages of East Timor: Some Basic Facts. www.shlrc.mq.edu.au/~leccles/easttimor.html (14 July 2004).
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  19. von Humboldt, W
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  20. INL. (Instituto Nacional de Linguística) .
    2004 The Standard Orthography of the Tetum Language: 115 years in the making. Dili: Instituto Nacional de Linguística.
     [Google Scholar]
  21. 2005a Hakerek Tetum tuir Banati. Dili: Instituto Nacional de Linguística.
     [Google Scholar]
  22. 2005b Matadalan Ortográfiku ba Tetum Nasionál. Dili: Instituto Nacional de Linguística.
     [Google Scholar]
  23. Jacob, F
    2001 Untitled Presentation to Australian Minister of Education. Dili: Department of Social Affairs Division of Education East Timor Transitional Administration.
     [Google Scholar]
  24. Jakarta Post
    2002 Portuguese reintroduced: Pupils, teachers tongue-tied in East Timor. Jakarta Post, May29, 2002.
     [Google Scholar]
  25. Kessler, M
    2002 Choosing a native tongue. The Guardian. April18.
     [Google Scholar]
  26. KNE (Komisaun Nasional Edukasaun) .
    2010 Edukasaun ne’ebé bazeia ba lian-inan Mother Tongue Education. Dili: KNE.
     [Google Scholar]
  27. KNE (Komisaun Nasional Edukasaun) .
    2011 First Language First: Mother Tongue Based Multilingual Education for Timor-Leste Implementation Plan. Dili: KNE.
     [Google Scholar]
  28. Knutsen, C.H
    2009 Africa’s Growth Tragedy Revisited: Weak States Strong Rulers GARNET Working Paper No: 71/09. www2.warwick.ac.uk/fac/soc/garnet/workingpapers/7109.pdf (23 July 2013).
     [Google Scholar]
  29. May, S
    2003 Rearticulating the case for minority language rights. Current Issues in Language Planning4(2): 95–125. doi: 10.1080/14664200308668052
     https://doi.org/10.1080/14664200308668052 [Google Scholar]
  30. ME (Ministry of Education) .
    2008 Building our Nation through Quality Education: National Education Policy 2007 – 2012. Dili: ME.
     [Google Scholar]
  31. 2011 Timor-Leste National Strategic Plan for Education 2011-2015. Dili: ME.
     [Google Scholar]
  32. MECYS (Ministry of Education Culture Youth and Sport) .
    2004a Education Policy Document: Draft for Parliament Approval. Dili: MECYS.
     [Google Scholar]
  33. MECYS (Ministry of Education Culture Youth and Sport) .
    2004b Primary Curriculum Implementation Plan 2004–2009: Supporting the Implementation of New Curriculum from Grade 1 to Grade 6. Dili: MECYS.
     [Google Scholar]
  34. MOF (Ministry of Finance) .
    2012 Parliamentary Plenary Session: urgent debate on mother tongue. www.mof.gov.tl/parliament-plenary-session-–-urgent-debate-on-mother-tongue/?lang=en (2 March 2012).
  35. Nicolai, S
    2004 Learning Independence: Education in Emergency and Transition in Timor-Leste since 1999. Paris: International Institute for Educational Planning.
     [Google Scholar]
  36. Quinn, M
    2006 The work of teachers in East Timor: Some of the issues. Development Bulletin68: 112–115.
     [Google Scholar]
  37. 2009 Letting go of Indonesian. Inside Indonesia, 96, March – April 2009. www.insideindonesia.org/feature-editions/letting-go-of-indonesian (1 June 2013).
     [Google Scholar]
  38. 2010 Using talk in classrooms: Constructing meaning. InUnderstanding Timor Leste, M. Leach , N.C. Mendes , A.B. da Silva , A. da C. Ximenes & B. Boughton (eds), 235 – 241. Melbourne: Timor-Leste Studies Association.
     [Google Scholar]
  39. 2011 The Languages of Schooling in Timor-Leste: Patterns and Influences on Practice. PhD dissertation, The University of Melbourne.
     [Google Scholar]
  40. 2013 Talking to learn in Timorese classrooms. Language, Culture and Curriculum26(2): 179–196. (23 July 2013). Doi: 10.1080/07908318.2013.810223
     https://doi.org/10.1080/07908318.2013.810223 [Google Scholar]
  41. RDTL (Republica Democratica Timor Leste) .
    2002 Constitution of Democratic Republic of East Timor. Dili: RDTL.
     [Google Scholar]
  42. 2008 Base Law for Education (Law 14/2008). Dili: RDTL.
     [Google Scholar]
  43. 2010 Resolução do Parlamento Nacional, sobre o Usa das Linguas Oficais. Dili: RDTL.
     [Google Scholar]
  44. Ricento, T
    2006 Language policy: Theory and practice – an introduction. InAn Introduction to Language Policy: Theory and Method. T. Ricento (ed.), 10- 23. Oxford: Blackwell.
     [Google Scholar]
  45. Rivalland, J
    2004 Oral language development and access to school discourses. Australian Journal of Language and Literacy27(2): 142–159.
     [Google Scholar]
  46. Steele, J
    2002 National building in East Timor. World Policy JournalSummer: 76- 87.10.1215/07402775‑2002‑3007
     https://doi.org/10.1215/07402775-2002-3007 [Google Scholar]
  47. Strauss, A. & Corbin, J
    1990 Basics of Qualitative Research. Newbury Park CA: Sage.
     [Google Scholar]
  48. UNESCO .
    1953 The Use of Vernacular Languages in Education. Paris: UNESCO.
     [Google Scholar]
  49. 2003 Education in a Multilingual World. Paris: UNESCO.
     [Google Scholar]
  50. Vine, K
    2007 Pilot Study of Learning Achievement in Grades 3 and 5 in Mathematics, Tetum and Portuguese. Dili: UNICEF UNTL.
     [Google Scholar]
  51. Vygotsky, L
    1978 Mind in Society: The Development of Higher Psychological Processes. Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press.
     [Google Scholar]
  52. Williams, G
    2001 Literacy pedagogy prior to schooling: Relations between social positioning and semantic variation. InTowards a Sociology of Pedagogy: The Contribution of Basil Bernstein to Research, A. Morais , I. Neves , B. Davies & H. Daniels (eds.), 88–122. Frankfurt: Peter Lang.
     [Google Scholar]
  53. Williams-van Klinken, C
    2002 High registers of Tetun Dili: Portuguese press and purist priests. Proceedings of the 2001 Conference of the Australian Linguistics Society , 1- 8.
     [Google Scholar]
  54. World Bank .
    1999 East Timor Building a Nation: A Framework for Reconstruction and Development. Dili: The World Bank.
     [Google Scholar]
  55. 2003 The Way Forward. Dili: The World Bank.
     [Google Scholar]
  56. 2004 Timor-Leste Education Since Independence from Reconstruction to Sustainable Improvement Report No. 29784-TP. East Asia and Pacific Region: Human Development Sector Unit. Washington DC: The World Bank.
     [Google Scholar]
  57. 2009 Timor-Leste: An analysis of early grade reading acquisition. siteresources.worldbank.org/INTTIMORLESTE/Resources/Timor-Leste_EGRA_Report0130%5B1%5D.pdf (23 July 2013).

References

  1. Annamalai, E
    2003 Reflections on a language policy for multilingualism, Language Policy2: 113–132. doi: 10.1023/A:1024689217801
     https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1024689217801 [Google Scholar]
  2. Beazley, H
    1999 East Timor: Background briefing for project identification mission PIM. Canberra: Indonesian Project, Australian National University.
     [Google Scholar]
  3. Chowdhury, A
    2005 Consultancy Report on Institutional Assessment and Capacity Building Plan. Republic of Timor-Leste: Fundamental School Quality Project.
     [Google Scholar]
  4. Coulmas, F
    1984 Linguistic minorities and literacy. InLinguistic Minorities and Literacy: Language Policy Issues in Developing Countries, F. Coulmas (ed.), 5–20. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. doi: 10.1515/9783110865301
     https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110865301 [Google Scholar]
  5. Easterly, W. & Levine, R
    1995 Africa's Growth Tragedy: A Retrospective 1960-89 World Bank Policy Research Working Paper No. 1777. Washington DC: World Bank.
     [Google Scholar]
  6. Eccles, L
    2000 East Timorese language policy and the language policies of other small Pacific nations. Studies in Languages and Cultures of East Timor3: 1–30.
     [Google Scholar]
  7. EMIS (Educational Management Information System) .
    2008. Map Series: Dropout and Retention Rates across 5 Regions for all School Sectors. Dili: Ministry of Education.
     [Google Scholar]
  8. ETPC (East Timor Planning Commission) .
    2002 East Timor National Development Plan. Dili: East Timor Planning Commission.
     [Google Scholar]
  9. Far Eastern Economic Review .
    2002 A tangle of tongues, The Far Eastern Economic ReviewApril 11, 2002, 50.
     [Google Scholar]
  10. Ferguson, G
    2003 Language Planning and Education. Edinburgh: EUP.
     [Google Scholar]
  11. FONGTIL (Forum Organisaun Non Governu Timor Loro’sae) & Rede Feto .
    2012 Civil society statement regarding the policy to introduce mother tongue as the language of instruction in pre-school through 4th year of primary education etan.org/etan/donate.htm (16January 2012).
  12. Glasser, B. & Strauss, A
    1967 The Discovery of Grounded Theory. Chicago IL: Aldine.
     [Google Scholar]
  13. Gordon, R.G. Jr
    (ed) 2005 Ethnologue: Languages of the World, 15th edn. Dallas TX: SIL International.
     [Google Scholar]
  14. Herrera, J
    2004 Timor and Language. www.shlrc.mq.edu.au/~leccles/easttimor.html (14 July 2004).
     [Google Scholar]
  15. Heyward, M
    2005. Lafaek as a Tool to Support Education Improvements in East Timor A Study Conducted under the Fundamental School Quality Project TF 030630. Dili: Care International UK.
     [Google Scholar]
  16. Hill, H
    2003 Dispelling the myths of Timor. Arena62: 42–45.
     [Google Scholar]
  17. Hornberger, N.H. & Chick, J.K
    2001 Co-constructing school safetime: safetalk practices in Peruvian and South African classrooms. InVoices of Authority: Education and Linguistic Difference, M. Heller & M. Martin-Jones (eds), 31–56. Westport CT: Ablex.
     [Google Scholar]
  18. Hull, G
    2004 The Languages of East Timor: Some Basic Facts. www.shlrc.mq.edu.au/~leccles/easttimor.html (14 July 2004).
     [Google Scholar]
  19. von Humboldt, W
    1963 In Humanist Without Portfolio, M. Cowan (ed. and trans.). Detroit MI: Wayne State University Press.
     [Google Scholar]
  20. INL. (Instituto Nacional de Linguística) .
    2004 The Standard Orthography of the Tetum Language: 115 years in the making. Dili: Instituto Nacional de Linguística.
     [Google Scholar]
  21. 2005a Hakerek Tetum tuir Banati. Dili: Instituto Nacional de Linguística.
     [Google Scholar]
  22. 2005b Matadalan Ortográfiku ba Tetum Nasionál. Dili: Instituto Nacional de Linguística.
     [Google Scholar]
  23. Jacob, F
    2001 Untitled Presentation to Australian Minister of Education. Dili: Department of Social Affairs Division of Education East Timor Transitional Administration.
     [Google Scholar]
  24. Jakarta Post
    2002 Portuguese reintroduced: Pupils, teachers tongue-tied in East Timor. Jakarta Post, May29, 2002.
     [Google Scholar]
  25. Kessler, M
    2002 Choosing a native tongue. The Guardian. April18.
     [Google Scholar]
  26. KNE (Komisaun Nasional Edukasaun) .
    2010 Edukasaun ne’ebé bazeia ba lian-inan Mother Tongue Education. Dili: KNE.
     [Google Scholar]
  27. KNE (Komisaun Nasional Edukasaun) .
    2011 First Language First: Mother Tongue Based Multilingual Education for Timor-Leste Implementation Plan. Dili: KNE.
     [Google Scholar]
  28. Knutsen, C.H
    2009 Africa’s Growth Tragedy Revisited: Weak States Strong Rulers GARNET Working Paper No: 71/09. www2.warwick.ac.uk/fac/soc/garnet/workingpapers/7109.pdf (23 July 2013).
     [Google Scholar]
  29. May, S
    2003 Rearticulating the case for minority language rights. Current Issues in Language Planning4(2): 95–125. doi: 10.1080/14664200308668052
     https://doi.org/10.1080/14664200308668052 [Google Scholar]
  30. ME (Ministry of Education) .
    2008 Building our Nation through Quality Education: National Education Policy 2007 – 2012. Dili: ME.
     [Google Scholar]
  31. 2011 Timor-Leste National Strategic Plan for Education 2011-2015. Dili: ME.
     [Google Scholar]
  32. MECYS (Ministry of Education Culture Youth and Sport) .
    2004a Education Policy Document: Draft for Parliament Approval. Dili: MECYS.
     [Google Scholar]
  33. MECYS (Ministry of Education Culture Youth and Sport) .
    2004b Primary Curriculum Implementation Plan 2004–2009: Supporting the Implementation of New Curriculum from Grade 1 to Grade 6. Dili: MECYS.
     [Google Scholar]
  34. MOF (Ministry of Finance) .
    2012 Parliamentary Plenary Session: urgent debate on mother tongue. www.mof.gov.tl/parliament-plenary-session-–-urgent-debate-on-mother-tongue/?lang=en (2 March 2012).
  35. Nicolai, S
    2004 Learning Independence: Education in Emergency and Transition in Timor-Leste since 1999. Paris: International Institute for Educational Planning.
     [Google Scholar]
  36. Quinn, M
    2006 The work of teachers in East Timor: Some of the issues. Development Bulletin68: 112–115.
     [Google Scholar]
  37. 2009 Letting go of Indonesian. Inside Indonesia, 96, March – April 2009. www.insideindonesia.org/feature-editions/letting-go-of-indonesian (1 June 2013).
     [Google Scholar]
  38. 2010 Using talk in classrooms: Constructing meaning. InUnderstanding Timor Leste, M. Leach , N.C. Mendes , A.B. da Silva , A. da C. Ximenes & B. Boughton (eds), 235 – 241. Melbourne: Timor-Leste Studies Association.
     [Google Scholar]
  39. 2011 The Languages of Schooling in Timor-Leste: Patterns and Influences on Practice. PhD dissertation, The University of Melbourne.
     [Google Scholar]
  40. 2013 Talking to learn in Timorese classrooms. Language, Culture and Curriculum26(2): 179–196. (23 July 2013). Doi: 10.1080/07908318.2013.810223
     https://doi.org/10.1080/07908318.2013.810223 [Google Scholar]
  41. RDTL (Republica Democratica Timor Leste) .
    2002 Constitution of Democratic Republic of East Timor. Dili: RDTL.
     [Google Scholar]
  42. 2008 Base Law for Education (Law 14/2008). Dili: RDTL.
     [Google Scholar]
  43. 2010 Resolução do Parlamento Nacional, sobre o Usa das Linguas Oficais. Dili: RDTL.
     [Google Scholar]
  44. Ricento, T
    2006 Language policy: Theory and practice – an introduction. InAn Introduction to Language Policy: Theory and Method. T. Ricento (ed.), 10- 23. Oxford: Blackwell.
     [Google Scholar]
  45. Rivalland, J
    2004 Oral language development and access to school discourses. Australian Journal of Language and Literacy27(2): 142–159.
     [Google Scholar]
  46. Steele, J
    2002 National building in East Timor. World Policy JournalSummer: 76- 87.10.1215/07402775‑2002‑3007
     https://doi.org/10.1215/07402775-2002-3007 [Google Scholar]
  47. Strauss, A. & Corbin, J
    1990 Basics of Qualitative Research. Newbury Park CA: Sage.
     [Google Scholar]
  48. UNESCO .
    1953 The Use of Vernacular Languages in Education. Paris: UNESCO.
     [Google Scholar]
  49. 2003 Education in a Multilingual World. Paris: UNESCO.
     [Google Scholar]
  50. Vine, K
    2007 Pilot Study of Learning Achievement in Grades 3 and 5 in Mathematics, Tetum and Portuguese. Dili: UNICEF UNTL.
     [Google Scholar]
  51. Vygotsky, L
    1978 Mind in Society: The Development of Higher Psychological Processes. Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press.
     [Google Scholar]
  52. Williams, G
    2001 Literacy pedagogy prior to schooling: Relations between social positioning and semantic variation. InTowards a Sociology of Pedagogy: The Contribution of Basil Bernstein to Research, A. Morais , I. Neves , B. Davies & H. Daniels (eds.), 88–122. Frankfurt: Peter Lang.
     [Google Scholar]
  53. Williams-van Klinken, C
    2002 High registers of Tetun Dili: Portuguese press and purist priests. Proceedings of the 2001 Conference of the Australian Linguistics Society , 1- 8.
     [Google Scholar]
  54. World Bank .
    1999 East Timor Building a Nation: A Framework for Reconstruction and Development. Dili: The World Bank.
     [Google Scholar]
  55. 2003 The Way Forward. Dili: The World Bank.
     [Google Scholar]
  56. 2004 Timor-Leste Education Since Independence from Reconstruction to Sustainable Improvement Report No. 29784-TP. East Asia and Pacific Region: Human Development Sector Unit. Washington DC: The World Bank.
     [Google Scholar]
  57. 2009 Timor-Leste: An analysis of early grade reading acquisition. siteresources.worldbank.org/INTTIMORLESTE/Resources/Timor-Leste_EGRA_Report0130%5B1%5D.pdf (23 July 2013).

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