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Chapter 2. Family language policy

Is learning Chinese at odds with learning English?

image of Chapter 2. Family language policy

This inquiry examines how family languages policies (FLP) are planned and developed in twenty bilingual families in Singapore with regard to their children’s Chinese language and literacy development. The study focuses on how parents perceive Chinese and how their beliefs are transformed into active language practices. Data sources include de facto language practices in home domains, parents’ language ideologies, and literacy activities and private tuition used as their language management. The findings reveal that all parents hold an unambiguous belief in the benefits of developing Chinese language, both in terms of cultural identity and in terms of providing overt socioeconomic opportunities. The study shows that FLPs are constantly interacting with and shaped by nonlinguistic forces – the national language policy and the educational system. When facing the sociopolitical and educational realities in Singapore, these parents are coerced to place Chinese and English into a dichotomous position resulting in lower expectations for their children’s Chinese proficiency and less sufficient provision of Chinese literacy resources.

  • Affiliations: 1: University of Reading

References

  1. Burgess, S.R ., Hecht, S.A . & Lonigan, C.J
    2002 Relations of the home literacy environment (HLE) to the development of reading-related abilities: A one-year longitudinal study. Reading Research Quarterly 37: 408–426. doi: 10.1598/RRQ.37.4.4
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  2. Canagarajah, A.S
    2008 Language shift and the family: Questions from the Sri Lankan Tamil diaspora. Journal of Sociolinguistics 12(2): 143–176. doi: 10.1111/j.1467‑9841.2008.00361.x
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  4. CLCPRC (Chinese Language Curriculum and Pedagogy Review Committee)
    CLCPRC (Chinese Language Curriculum and Pedagogy Review Committee) 2004  Report of the Chinese Language Curriculum and Pedagogy Review Committee .Singapore: Ministry of Education.
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  5. Coleman, J.S
    1988 Social capital in the creation of human capital. American Journal of Sociology 94: 95–120. doi: 10.1086/228943
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  6. Curdt-Christiansen, X.L
    2009 Visible and invisible language planning: Ideological factor in the family language policy of Chinese immigrant families in Quebec. Language Policy 8(4): 351–375 doi: 10.1007/s10993‑009‑9146‑7
     https://doi.org/10.1007/s10993-009-9146-7 [Google Scholar]
  7. 2012 Private language management in Singapore: Which language to practice and how?In Communication and Language , A.S. Yeung , C.F.K. Lee & E.L. Brown (eds), 55–77. Scottsdale AZ: Information Age Publishing.
     [Google Scholar]
  8. 2013a Editorial: Family language policy: Realities and continuities. Language Policy 13(1): 1–7. doi: 10.1007/s10993‑012‑9269‑0
     https://doi.org/10.1007/s10993-012-9269-0 [Google Scholar]
  9. 2013b 潜移默化 - Implicit learning and imperceptible influence: Syncretic literacy of multilingual Chinese children. Journal of Early Childhood Literacy 13(3): 345–367. doi: 10.1177/1468798412455819
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    2008 Negotiating language, literacy and identity: Chinese heritage learners’ language socialization. World Congress of Applied Linguistics , Essen, Germany, August.
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  13. Edwards, P.A
    2007 Home literacy environments: What we know and what we need to know. In Shaping Literacy Achievement: Research We Have, Research We Need , M. Pressley (ed.), 42–76. New York NY: Guilford Publications.
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  14. Fishman, J.A
    2004 Language maintenance, language shift, and reversing. In The Handbook of Bilingualism , T.K. Bhatia & W. Ritchie (eds), 406–436. Oxford: Blackwell.
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    2008  Learning to Read in a New Language: Making Sense of Words and Worlds , 2nd edn. London: Sage. doi: 10.4135/9781446214077
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  18. Kenner, C ., Ruby, M ., Gregory, E ., Jessel, J . & Arju, Y
    2007 Intergenerational learning between children and grandparents in East London. Journal of Early Childhood Literacy 5(2): 219–274. doi: 10.1177/1476718X07080471
     https://doi.org/10.1177/1476718X07080471 [Google Scholar]
  19. King, K.A
    2000 Language ideologies and heritage language education. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism 3(3): 167–184. doi: 10.1080/13670050008667705
     https://doi.org/10.1080/13670050008667705 [Google Scholar]
  20. King, K.A ., Fogle, L ., & Logan-Terry, A
    2008 Family language policy. Language and Linguistics Compass 2 (5): 907–922. doi: 10.1111/j.1749‑818X.2008.00076.x
     https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-818X.2008.00076.x [Google Scholar]
  21. Lane, P
    2010 We did what we thought was best for our children: A nexus analysis of language shift ina Kvan community. International Journal of Social Language 202: 63–78.
     [Google Scholar]
  22. Lanza, E
    2004  Language Mixing in Infant Bilingualism: A Sociolinguistic Perspective . Oxford: OUP.
     [Google Scholar]
  23. Li, G
    2007 Home environment and second language acquisition: The importance of family capital. British Journal of Sociology of Education 28(3): 285–299. doi: 10.1080/01425690701252028
     https://doi.org/10.1080/01425690701252028 [Google Scholar]
  24. Li, W ., Saravanan, V . & Ng, J
    1997 Language shift in the Teochew community in Singapore: A family domain analysis. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development 18(5): 364–384. doi: 10.1080/01434639708666326
     https://doi.org/10.1080/01434639708666326 [Google Scholar]
  25. Lo Bianco, J
    2010 Language policy and planning. In Sociolinguistics and Language Education , N.H. Hornberger & S. McKay (eds), 398–426. Bristol: Multilingual Matters.
     [Google Scholar]
  26. McCarty, T.L ., Romero-Little, M.E ., Warhol, L . & Zepeda, O
    2011 Critical ethnography and indigenous language survival: Some new direction in language policy research and praxis. In Ethnography and Language Policy , T.L. McCarty (ed.), 77–97. London: Routledge.
     [Google Scholar]
  27. MOE
    2006  2007 Syllabus Chinese Language Primary . Singapore: Curriculum Planning & Development Division.
     [Google Scholar]
  28. 2010  2011 Syllabus Chinese Language Secondary . Singapore: Curriculum Planning & Development Division.
     [Google Scholar]
  29. Mui, S . & Anderson. J
    2008 At home with the Johars: Another look at family literacy. The Reading Teacher 62(3): 234–243. doi: 10.1598/RT.62.3.5
     https://doi.org/10.1598/RT.62.3.5 [Google Scholar]
  30. Pakir, A
    2008 Bilingual education in Singapore. In Encyclopedia of Language and Education: Bilingual Education , J. Cummins & N. Hornberger (eds), 191–204. Dordrecht: Springer.10.1007/978‑0‑387‑30424‑3_125
     https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-30424-3_125 [Google Scholar]
  31. Ren, L . & Hu, G.W
    2013 Prolepsis, syncretism, and synergy in early language and literacy practices: A case study of family language policy in Singapore. Language Policy 12: 63–82. doi: 10.1007/s10993‑012‑9260‑9
     https://doi.org/10.1007/s10993-012-9260-9 [Google Scholar]
  32. Reyes, A
    2010 Language and ethnicity. In Sociolinguistics and Language Education , N.H. Hornberger & S. McKay (eds), 143–173. Bristol: Multilingual Matters.
     [Google Scholar]
  33. Ruiz, R
    1984 Orientations in language planning. NABE Journal 8(2): 15–34.
     [Google Scholar]
  34. Schwartz, M
    2010 Family language policy: Core issues of an emerging field. Applied Linguistics Review 1(1): 171–192. doi: 10.1515/9783110222654.171
     https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110222654.171 [Google Scholar]
  35. Shohamy, E
    2006  Language Policy: Hidden Agendas and New Approaches . London: Routledge.10.4324/9780203387962
     https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203387962 [Google Scholar]
  36. Singapore Statistic
    2010 Census of population 2010. www.singstat.gov.sg/pubn/popn/c2010asr/10A1.pdf(17March 2010).
  37. Stavans, A
    2012 Language policy and literary practices in the family: The case of Ethiopian parental narrative input. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development 33(1): 13–33. doi: 10.1080/01434632.2011.638073
     https://doi.org/10.1080/01434632.2011.638073 [Google Scholar]
  38. Spolsky, B
    2004  Language Policy . Cambridge: CUP.
     [Google Scholar]
  39. 2009  Language Management . Cambridge: CUP. doi: 10.1017/CBO9780511626470
     https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511626470 [Google Scholar]
  40. Tsui, A . & Tollefson, J.W
    2004 The centrality of medium of instruction policies in sociopolitical processes. In Medium of Instruction Policies: Which Agenda? Whose Agenda? , J.W. Tollefson & A. Tsui (eds), 1–18. Mahwah NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
     [Google Scholar]
  41. Teo, P
    2005 Mandarinising Singapore: A critical analysis of slogans in Singapore’s “Speak Mandarin” campaign. Critical Discourse Studies 2(2): 121–142. doi: 10.1080/17405900500283565
     https://doi.org/10.1080/17405900500283565 [Google Scholar]
  42. Toh, M
    2008 Tuition Nation.newsgroups.derkeiler.com/Archive/Soc/soc.culture.singapore/2008-06/msg02235.html (30October 2013).
  43. Weigel, D ., Martina, S . & Bennett, K
    2006 Contributions of the home literacy environment to preschool-aged children’s emerging literacy and language skills. Early Child Development and Care 176(3-4): 357–378. doi: 10.1080/03004430500063747
     https://doi.org/10.1080/03004430500063747 [Google Scholar]
  44. Zhao, S.H . & Y.B. Liu
    2008 Home language shift and its implications for language planning in Singapore: From the perspective of prestige planning. The Asia Pacific-Education Researcher 16(2): 111–126. doi: 10.3860/taper.v16i2.230
     https://doi.org/10.3860/taper.v16i2.230 [Google Scholar]
  45. Zhao, S.H ., Y. B ., Liu & H.Q. Hong
    2007 Singaporean preschoolers’ oral competence in Mandarin. Language Police6(1): 73–94. doi: 10.1007/s10993‑006‑9044‑1
     https://doi.org/10.1007/s10993-006-9044-1 [Google Scholar]

References

  1. Burgess, S.R ., Hecht, S.A . & Lonigan, C.J
    2002 Relations of the home literacy environment (HLE) to the development of reading-related abilities: A one-year longitudinal study. Reading Research Quarterly 37: 408–426. doi: 10.1598/RRQ.37.4.4
     https://doi.org/10.1598/RRQ.37.4.4 [Google Scholar]
  2. Canagarajah, A.S
    2008 Language shift and the family: Questions from the Sri Lankan Tamil diaspora. Journal of Sociolinguistics 12(2): 143–176. doi: 10.1111/j.1467‑9841.2008.00361.x
     https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9841.2008.00361.x [Google Scholar]
  3. 2011 Diaspora communities, language maintenance, and policy dilemma. In Ethnography and Language Policy , T.L. McCarty (ed.), 77–97. London: Routledge.
     [Google Scholar]
  4. CLCPRC (Chinese Language Curriculum and Pedagogy Review Committee)
    CLCPRC (Chinese Language Curriculum and Pedagogy Review Committee) 2004  Report of the Chinese Language Curriculum and Pedagogy Review Committee .Singapore: Ministry of Education.
     [Google Scholar]
  5. Coleman, J.S
    1988 Social capital in the creation of human capital. American Journal of Sociology 94: 95–120. doi: 10.1086/228943
     https://doi.org/10.1086/228943 [Google Scholar]
  6. Curdt-Christiansen, X.L
    2009 Visible and invisible language planning: Ideological factor in the family language policy of Chinese immigrant families in Quebec. Language Policy 8(4): 351–375 doi: 10.1007/s10993‑009‑9146‑7
     https://doi.org/10.1007/s10993-009-9146-7 [Google Scholar]
  7. 2012 Private language management in Singapore: Which language to practice and how?In Communication and Language , A.S. Yeung , C.F.K. Lee & E.L. Brown (eds), 55–77. Scottsdale AZ: Information Age Publishing.
     [Google Scholar]
  8. 2013a Editorial: Family language policy: Realities and continuities. Language Policy 13(1): 1–7. doi: 10.1007/s10993‑012‑9269‑0
     https://doi.org/10.1007/s10993-012-9269-0 [Google Scholar]
  9. 2013b 潜移默化 - Implicit learning and imperceptible influence: Syncretic literacy of multilingual Chinese children. Journal of Early Childhood Literacy 13(3): 345–367. doi: 10.1177/1468798412455819
     https://doi.org/10.1177/1468798412455819 [Google Scholar]
  10. 2013c Negotiating family language policy: Doing homework. In Achieving Success in Family Language Policy: Parents, Children and Educators in Interaction , M. Schwartz & A. Verschik (eds). Dordrecht: Springer.10.1007/978‑94‑007‑7753‑8_12
     https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-7753-8_12 [Google Scholar]
  11. 2014 Planning for development or decline? Education policy for Chinese language in Singapore. Critical Inquiry in Language Studies 11(1): 1–26. doi: 10.1080/15427587.2014.871621
     https://doi.org/10.1080/15427587.2014.871621 [Google Scholar]
  12. Duff, P . & Li, D
    2008 Negotiating language, literacy and identity: Chinese heritage learners’ language socialization. World Congress of Applied Linguistics , Essen, Germany, August.
     [Google Scholar]
  13. Edwards, P.A
    2007 Home literacy environments: What we know and what we need to know. In Shaping Literacy Achievement: Research We Have, Research We Need , M. Pressley (ed.), 42–76. New York NY: Guilford Publications.
     [Google Scholar]
  14. Fishman, J.A
    2004 Language maintenance, language shift, and reversing. In The Handbook of Bilingualism , T.K. Bhatia & W. Ritchie (eds), 406–436. Oxford: Blackwell.
     [Google Scholar]
  15. Garcia, O
    2009  Bilingual Education in the 21st Century: A Global Perspective . Malden MA: Wiley/Blackwell.
     [Google Scholar]
  16. Gafaranga, J
    2010 Medium request: Talking language shift into being. Language in Society 39(2): 241–270. doi: 10.1017/S0047404510000047
     https://doi.org/10.1017/S0047404510000047 [Google Scholar]
  17. Gregory, E
    2008  Learning to Read in a New Language: Making Sense of Words and Worlds , 2nd edn. London: Sage. doi: 10.4135/9781446214077
     https://doi.org/10.4135/9781446214077 [Google Scholar]
  18. Kenner, C ., Ruby, M ., Gregory, E ., Jessel, J . & Arju, Y
    2007 Intergenerational learning between children and grandparents in East London. Journal of Early Childhood Literacy 5(2): 219–274. doi: 10.1177/1476718X07080471
     https://doi.org/10.1177/1476718X07080471 [Google Scholar]
  19. King, K.A
    2000 Language ideologies and heritage language education. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism 3(3): 167–184. doi: 10.1080/13670050008667705
     https://doi.org/10.1080/13670050008667705 [Google Scholar]
  20. King, K.A ., Fogle, L ., & Logan-Terry, A
    2008 Family language policy. Language and Linguistics Compass 2 (5): 907–922. doi: 10.1111/j.1749‑818X.2008.00076.x
     https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-818X.2008.00076.x [Google Scholar]
  21. Lane, P
    2010 We did what we thought was best for our children: A nexus analysis of language shift ina Kvan community. International Journal of Social Language 202: 63–78.
     [Google Scholar]
  22. Lanza, E
    2004  Language Mixing in Infant Bilingualism: A Sociolinguistic Perspective . Oxford: OUP.
     [Google Scholar]
  23. Li, G
    2007 Home environment and second language acquisition: The importance of family capital. British Journal of Sociology of Education 28(3): 285–299. doi: 10.1080/01425690701252028
     https://doi.org/10.1080/01425690701252028 [Google Scholar]
  24. Li, W ., Saravanan, V . & Ng, J
    1997 Language shift in the Teochew community in Singapore: A family domain analysis. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development 18(5): 364–384. doi: 10.1080/01434639708666326
     https://doi.org/10.1080/01434639708666326 [Google Scholar]
  25. Lo Bianco, J
    2010 Language policy and planning. In Sociolinguistics and Language Education , N.H. Hornberger & S. McKay (eds), 398–426. Bristol: Multilingual Matters.
     [Google Scholar]
  26. McCarty, T.L ., Romero-Little, M.E ., Warhol, L . & Zepeda, O
    2011 Critical ethnography and indigenous language survival: Some new direction in language policy research and praxis. In Ethnography and Language Policy , T.L. McCarty (ed.), 77–97. London: Routledge.
     [Google Scholar]
  27. MOE
    2006  2007 Syllabus Chinese Language Primary . Singapore: Curriculum Planning & Development Division.
     [Google Scholar]
  28. 2010  2011 Syllabus Chinese Language Secondary . Singapore: Curriculum Planning & Development Division.
     [Google Scholar]
  29. Mui, S . & Anderson. J
    2008 At home with the Johars: Another look at family literacy. The Reading Teacher 62(3): 234–243. doi: 10.1598/RT.62.3.5
     https://doi.org/10.1598/RT.62.3.5 [Google Scholar]
  30. Pakir, A
    2008 Bilingual education in Singapore. In Encyclopedia of Language and Education: Bilingual Education , J. Cummins & N. Hornberger (eds), 191–204. Dordrecht: Springer.10.1007/978‑0‑387‑30424‑3_125
     https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-30424-3_125 [Google Scholar]
  31. Ren, L . & Hu, G.W
    2013 Prolepsis, syncretism, and synergy in early language and literacy practices: A case study of family language policy in Singapore. Language Policy 12: 63–82. doi: 10.1007/s10993‑012‑9260‑9
     https://doi.org/10.1007/s10993-012-9260-9 [Google Scholar]
  32. Reyes, A
    2010 Language and ethnicity. In Sociolinguistics and Language Education , N.H. Hornberger & S. McKay (eds), 143–173. Bristol: Multilingual Matters.
     [Google Scholar]
  33. Ruiz, R
    1984 Orientations in language planning. NABE Journal 8(2): 15–34.
     [Google Scholar]
  34. Schwartz, M
    2010 Family language policy: Core issues of an emerging field. Applied Linguistics Review 1(1): 171–192. doi: 10.1515/9783110222654.171
     https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110222654.171 [Google Scholar]
  35. Shohamy, E
    2006  Language Policy: Hidden Agendas and New Approaches . London: Routledge.10.4324/9780203387962
     https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203387962 [Google Scholar]
  36. Singapore Statistic
    2010 Census of population 2010. www.singstat.gov.sg/pubn/popn/c2010asr/10A1.pdf(17March 2010).
  37. Stavans, A
    2012 Language policy and literary practices in the family: The case of Ethiopian parental narrative input. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development 33(1): 13–33. doi: 10.1080/01434632.2011.638073
     https://doi.org/10.1080/01434632.2011.638073 [Google Scholar]
  38. Spolsky, B
    2004  Language Policy . Cambridge: CUP.
     [Google Scholar]
  39. 2009  Language Management . Cambridge: CUP. doi: 10.1017/CBO9780511626470
     https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511626470 [Google Scholar]
  40. Tsui, A . & Tollefson, J.W
    2004 The centrality of medium of instruction policies in sociopolitical processes. In Medium of Instruction Policies: Which Agenda? Whose Agenda? , J.W. Tollefson & A. Tsui (eds), 1–18. Mahwah NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
     [Google Scholar]
  41. Teo, P
    2005 Mandarinising Singapore: A critical analysis of slogans in Singapore’s “Speak Mandarin” campaign. Critical Discourse Studies 2(2): 121–142. doi: 10.1080/17405900500283565
     https://doi.org/10.1080/17405900500283565 [Google Scholar]
  42. Toh, M
    2008 Tuition Nation.newsgroups.derkeiler.com/Archive/Soc/soc.culture.singapore/2008-06/msg02235.html (30October 2013).
  43. Weigel, D ., Martina, S . & Bennett, K
    2006 Contributions of the home literacy environment to preschool-aged children’s emerging literacy and language skills. Early Child Development and Care 176(3-4): 357–378. doi: 10.1080/03004430500063747
     https://doi.org/10.1080/03004430500063747 [Google Scholar]
  44. Zhao, S.H . & Y.B. Liu
    2008 Home language shift and its implications for language planning in Singapore: From the perspective of prestige planning. The Asia Pacific-Education Researcher 16(2): 111–126. doi: 10.3860/taper.v16i2.230
     https://doi.org/10.3860/taper.v16i2.230 [Google Scholar]
  45. Zhao, S.H ., Y. B ., Liu & H.Q. Hong
    2007 Singaporean preschoolers’ oral competence in Mandarin. Language Police6(1): 73–94. doi: 10.1007/s10993‑006‑9044‑1
     https://doi.org/10.1007/s10993-006-9044-1 [Google Scholar]

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