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Chapter 4. Chinese heritage language schools in the United States

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Chinese heritage language schools in the United States have been playing a critical role in supporting the education of children of Chinese descent. This chapter first delineates the historical background and current sociopolitical environment of Chinese heritage language schools in the U.S. Then, a case of a Chinese heritage language school, including its structure, curriculum and pedagogical practices, is examined. Implications and suggestions for enhancing the school in the current context are discussed.

  • Affiliations: 1: Loyola Marymount University

References

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    1997  Chinese Heritage Community Language Schools in the United States . www.cal.org/resources/digest/chao0001.html (15January 2009).
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    Center for Applied Linguistics 2011  Directory of Foreign Language Immersion Programs in U.S. Schools . www.cal.org/resources/immersion/
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  7. Chen, R.S
    1996 Obtaining credit from local school districts. In A View From Within: A Case Study Of Chinese Heritage Community Language Schools in the United States , X. Wang (ed.), 51–57. Washington DC: National Foreign Language Center.
     [Google Scholar]
  8. Cummins, J
    2005 A proposal for action: Strategies for recognizing heritage language competence as a learning resource within the mainstream classroom. Modern Language Journal 89: 585–592.
     [Google Scholar]
  9. Curdt-Christiansen, X.L
    2008 Reading the world through words: Culture themes in heritage Chinese language textbooks. Language and Education 22(2): 95–113. doi: 10.2167/le721.0
     https://doi.org/10.2167/le721.0 [Google Scholar]
  10. Fishman, J
    2001 300-plus years of heritage language education in the United States. In Heritage Languages in America: Preserving a National Resource , K. Peyton , D. Ranard & S. McGinnis (eds), 81–98. McHenry IL & Washington DC: Delta Systems & Center for Applied Linguistics.
     [Google Scholar]
  11. Freeman, D . & Johnson, K.E
    1998 Reconceptualizing the knowledge-base of language teacher education. TESOL Quarterly 32: 397–417. doi: 10.2307/3588114
     https://doi.org/10.2307/3588114 [Google Scholar]
  12. Furman, N ., Goldberg, D . & Lusin, N
    2010  Enrollments in Languages Other Than English in United States Institutions of Higher Education, Fall 2009 . New York NY: Modern Language Association.
     [Google Scholar]
  13. He, A.W ., & Xiao, Y
    . (eds) 2008  Chinese as a Heritage Language: Fostering Rooted World Citizenry . Honolulu HI: University of Hawai'i Press.
     [Google Scholar]
  14. Hancock, D.R ., Bray M . & Nason, S.A
    2003 Influencing university students’ achievement and motivation in a technology course. The Journal of Educational Research 95: 365–372. doi: 10.1080/00220670209596611
     https://doi.org/10.1080/00220670209596611 [Google Scholar]
  15. Hiebert, E.H
    1981 Developmental patterns and inter-relationships of preschool children’s print awareness. Reading Research Quarterly 16: 236–259. doi: 10.2307/747558
     https://doi.org/10.2307/747558 [Google Scholar]
  16. Hornberger, N.H . & Wang, S.C
    2008 Who are our heritage language learners? Identity and biliteracy in heritage language education in the United States. In Heritage Language Education: A New Field Emerging , D.M. Brinton , O. Kagan & S. Bauckus (eds), 3–35. New York NY: Routledge.
     [Google Scholar]
  17. Koda, K ., Lü, C . & Zhang, Y
    2008 Properties of characters in heritage Chinese Textbooks and their Implications for Character knowledge development among Chinese Heritage Language Learners. In Chinese as a Heritage Language: Fostering Rooted World Citizenry , A.W. He & Y. Xiao (eds), 125–135. Hawaii HI: University of Hawaii Press.
     [Google Scholar]
  18. Kondo-Brown, K
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  19. Kondo-Brown, K . & Brown, J.D
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  20. Lai, H.M
    2000 Retention of the Chinese heritage: Chinese schools in America before World War II. Chinese America: History and Perspectives 14: 10–31.
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  21. 2004  Becoming Chinese American . Lanham MD: AltaMira Press.
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  22. Liu, J
    1996 Awarding credit through testing—The case of the San Francisco Unified School District. In A View from Within: A Case Study of Chinese Heritage Community Language Schools in the United States , X. Wang (ed.), 59–61. Washington DC: National Foreign Language Center.
     [Google Scholar]
  23. Liu, N . Musica , A. Koscak , S. Vinogradova , P . & López, J
    2011 Challenges and needs of community-based heritage language programs and how they are addressed. Heritage Brief Collection. www.cal.org/heritage/pdfs/briefs/challenges-and%20needs-of-community-based-heritage-language-programs.pdf (1May2013).
     [Google Scholar]
  24. Lü, C . & Koda, K
    2011 Impacts of home language and literacy support in English-Chinese biliteracy acquisition among Chinese heritage language learners. Heritage Language Journal 8: 44–80.
     [Google Scholar]
  25. McGinnis, S
    1999 Articulation. In Mapping the Course of the Chinese Language Field [Chinese Language Teachers' Association Monograph Series 3], M. Chu (ed.), 331–344. Bloomington IN: CLTA.
     [Google Scholar]
  26. 2005a Heritage Language Preservation: Chinese as a model for intersector collaboration. www.international.ucla.edu/languages/article.asp?parentid=20146
  27. 2005b More than a silver bullet: The role of Chinese as a heritage language in the United States. Modern Language Journal 89: 592–594.
     [Google Scholar]
  28. No Child Left Behind (NCLB)
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  29. Peyton, J.K ., Ranard, D . & McGinnis, S
    2001  Heritage Languages in America: Preserving a National Resource . McHenry IL & Washington DC: Delta Systems & Center for Applied Linguistics.
     [Google Scholar]
  30. Powell, D . & Lowenkron, B
    2006  National Security Language Initiative Briefing . web.archive.org/web/20080306151344/ <www.state.gov/r/pa/prs/ps/2006/58733.htm (30May 2013).
     [Google Scholar]
  31. Pu, C
    2010 Bridging for biliteracy development: Instructional needs of community-based heritage language schools and public schools. Paper presented at the First International Conference on Heritage/Community Languages, Los Angeles.
     [Google Scholar]
  32. Polansky, S
    2004 Tutoring for community outreach: A course model for language learning and bridge building between universities and public schools. Foreign Language Annals 7: 367–373. doi: 10.1111/j.1944‑9720.2004.tb02695.x
     https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1944-9720.2004.tb02695.x [Google Scholar]
  33. Ruiz, R
    1984 Orientations in language planning. NABE Journal 8: 15–34.
     [Google Scholar]
  34. U.S. Census Bureau
    2007-2011  American Community Survey . factfinder2.census.gov/faces/tableservices/jsf/pages/productview.xhtml?pid=ACS_11_5YR_DP05 (30May 2013).
     [Google Scholar]
  35. Wang, S.C
    2007 Building societal capital: Chinese in the US. Language Policy 7: 27–52. doi: 10.1007/s10993‑006‑9043‑2
     https://doi.org/10.1007/s10993-006-9043-2 [Google Scholar]
  36. 2010 Chinese language education in the United States: A historical overview and future directions. In Teaching and Learning Chinese: Issues and Perspectives , J. Chen , C. Wang , & J. Cai (eds), 3–32. Raleigh NC: Information Age Publishing.
     [Google Scholar]
  37. Wang, X.Y
    . (ed) 1996  A View from Within: A Case Study of Chinese Heritage Community Language Schools in the United States . Washington DC: The National Foreign Language Center.
     [Google Scholar]
  38. World Affairs Council of Pittsburgh
    World Affairs Council of Pittsburgh 2005 from www.worldpittsburgh.org(20January  2009).
  39. Zhang, D . & Slaughter-Defoe, D.T
    2009 Language attitudes and heritage language maintenance among Chinese immigrant families in the USA. Language, Culture and Curriculum 22: 77–93. doi: 10.1080/07908310902935940
     https://doi.org/10.1080/07908310902935940 [Google Scholar]

References

  1. Asia Society & College Board
    2008  Chinese in 2008: An Expanding Field . New York NY: Asia Society.
     [Google Scholar]
  2. Brecht, R.D . & Ingold, C.W
    2002. Tapping a National Resource: Heritage languages in the United States . Washington DC: Center for Applied Linguistics. www.cal.org/resources/digest/0202brecht.html
     [Google Scholar]
  3. Bale, J
    2010 International comparative perspectives on heritage language education policy research. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics 30: 42–65. doi: 10.1017/S0267190510000024
     https://doi.org/10.1017/S0267190510000024 [Google Scholar]
  4. Brinton, D ., Kagan, O . & Bauckus, S
    . (eds) 2008  Heritage Language Education: A New Field Emerging . New York NY: Routledge.
     [Google Scholar]
  5. Chao, T.H
    1997  Chinese Heritage Community Language Schools in the United States . www.cal.org/resources/digest/chao0001.html (15January 2009).
     [Google Scholar]
  6. Center for Applied Linguistics
    Center for Applied Linguistics 2011  Directory of Foreign Language Immersion Programs in U.S. Schools . www.cal.org/resources/immersion/
     [Google Scholar]
  7. Chen, R.S
    1996 Obtaining credit from local school districts. In A View From Within: A Case Study Of Chinese Heritage Community Language Schools in the United States , X. Wang (ed.), 51–57. Washington DC: National Foreign Language Center.
     [Google Scholar]
  8. Cummins, J
    2005 A proposal for action: Strategies for recognizing heritage language competence as a learning resource within the mainstream classroom. Modern Language Journal 89: 585–592.
     [Google Scholar]
  9. Curdt-Christiansen, X.L
    2008 Reading the world through words: Culture themes in heritage Chinese language textbooks. Language and Education 22(2): 95–113. doi: 10.2167/le721.0
     https://doi.org/10.2167/le721.0 [Google Scholar]
  10. Fishman, J
    2001 300-plus years of heritage language education in the United States. In Heritage Languages in America: Preserving a National Resource , K. Peyton , D. Ranard & S. McGinnis (eds), 81–98. McHenry IL & Washington DC: Delta Systems & Center for Applied Linguistics.
     [Google Scholar]
  11. Freeman, D . & Johnson, K.E
    1998 Reconceptualizing the knowledge-base of language teacher education. TESOL Quarterly 32: 397–417. doi: 10.2307/3588114
     https://doi.org/10.2307/3588114 [Google Scholar]
  12. Furman, N ., Goldberg, D . & Lusin, N
    2010  Enrollments in Languages Other Than English in United States Institutions of Higher Education, Fall 2009 . New York NY: Modern Language Association.
     [Google Scholar]
  13. He, A.W ., & Xiao, Y
    . (eds) 2008  Chinese as a Heritage Language: Fostering Rooted World Citizenry . Honolulu HI: University of Hawai'i Press.
     [Google Scholar]
  14. Hancock, D.R ., Bray M . & Nason, S.A
    2003 Influencing university students’ achievement and motivation in a technology course. The Journal of Educational Research 95: 365–372. doi: 10.1080/00220670209596611
     https://doi.org/10.1080/00220670209596611 [Google Scholar]
  15. Hiebert, E.H
    1981 Developmental patterns and inter-relationships of preschool children’s print awareness. Reading Research Quarterly 16: 236–259. doi: 10.2307/747558
     https://doi.org/10.2307/747558 [Google Scholar]
  16. Hornberger, N.H . & Wang, S.C
    2008 Who are our heritage language learners? Identity and biliteracy in heritage language education in the United States. In Heritage Language Education: A New Field Emerging , D.M. Brinton , O. Kagan & S. Bauckus (eds), 3–35. New York NY: Routledge.
     [Google Scholar]
  17. Koda, K ., Lü, C . & Zhang, Y
    2008 Properties of characters in heritage Chinese Textbooks and their Implications for Character knowledge development among Chinese Heritage Language Learners. In Chinese as a Heritage Language: Fostering Rooted World Citizenry , A.W. He & Y. Xiao (eds), 125–135. Hawaii HI: University of Hawaii Press.
     [Google Scholar]
  18. Kondo-Brown, K
    . (ed) 2006  Heritage Language Development: Focus on East Asian Immigrants [Studies in Bilingualism 32]. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. doi: 10.1075/sibil.32
     https://doi.org/10.1075/sibil.32 [Google Scholar]
  19. Kondo-Brown, K . & Brown, J.D
    . (eds) 2008. Teaching Chinese, Japanese and Korean Heritage Language Students: Curriculum Needs, Materials, and a Assessment . New York NY: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates/ Taylor & Francis.
     [Google Scholar]
  20. Lai, H.M
    2000 Retention of the Chinese heritage: Chinese schools in America before World War II. Chinese America: History and Perspectives 14: 10–31.
     [Google Scholar]
  21. 2004  Becoming Chinese American . Lanham MD: AltaMira Press.
     [Google Scholar]
  22. Liu, J
    1996 Awarding credit through testing—The case of the San Francisco Unified School District. In A View from Within: A Case Study of Chinese Heritage Community Language Schools in the United States , X. Wang (ed.), 59–61. Washington DC: National Foreign Language Center.
     [Google Scholar]
  23. Liu, N . Musica , A. Koscak , S. Vinogradova , P . & López, J
    2011 Challenges and needs of community-based heritage language programs and how they are addressed. Heritage Brief Collection. www.cal.org/heritage/pdfs/briefs/challenges-and%20needs-of-community-based-heritage-language-programs.pdf (1May2013).
     [Google Scholar]
  24. Lü, C . & Koda, K
    2011 Impacts of home language and literacy support in English-Chinese biliteracy acquisition among Chinese heritage language learners. Heritage Language Journal 8: 44–80.
     [Google Scholar]
  25. McGinnis, S
    1999 Articulation. In Mapping the Course of the Chinese Language Field [Chinese Language Teachers' Association Monograph Series 3], M. Chu (ed.), 331–344. Bloomington IN: CLTA.
     [Google Scholar]
  26. 2005a Heritage Language Preservation: Chinese as a model for intersector collaboration. www.international.ucla.edu/languages/article.asp?parentid=20146
  27. 2005b More than a silver bullet: The role of Chinese as a heritage language in the United States. Modern Language Journal 89: 592–594.
     [Google Scholar]
  28. No Child Left Behind (NCLB)
    No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act of 2001 2002, Pub. L. No. 107-110, §115, Stat. 1425.
  29. Peyton, J.K ., Ranard, D . & McGinnis, S
    2001  Heritage Languages in America: Preserving a National Resource . McHenry IL & Washington DC: Delta Systems & Center for Applied Linguistics.
     [Google Scholar]
  30. Powell, D . & Lowenkron, B
    2006  National Security Language Initiative Briefing . web.archive.org/web/20080306151344/ <www.state.gov/r/pa/prs/ps/2006/58733.htm (30May 2013).
     [Google Scholar]
  31. Pu, C
    2010 Bridging for biliteracy development: Instructional needs of community-based heritage language schools and public schools. Paper presented at the First International Conference on Heritage/Community Languages, Los Angeles.
     [Google Scholar]
  32. Polansky, S
    2004 Tutoring for community outreach: A course model for language learning and bridge building between universities and public schools. Foreign Language Annals 7: 367–373. doi: 10.1111/j.1944‑9720.2004.tb02695.x
     https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1944-9720.2004.tb02695.x [Google Scholar]
  33. Ruiz, R
    1984 Orientations in language planning. NABE Journal 8: 15–34.
     [Google Scholar]
  34. U.S. Census Bureau
    2007-2011  American Community Survey . factfinder2.census.gov/faces/tableservices/jsf/pages/productview.xhtml?pid=ACS_11_5YR_DP05 (30May 2013).
     [Google Scholar]
  35. Wang, S.C
    2007 Building societal capital: Chinese in the US. Language Policy 7: 27–52. doi: 10.1007/s10993‑006‑9043‑2
     https://doi.org/10.1007/s10993-006-9043-2 [Google Scholar]
  36. 2010 Chinese language education in the United States: A historical overview and future directions. In Teaching and Learning Chinese: Issues and Perspectives , J. Chen , C. Wang , & J. Cai (eds), 3–32. Raleigh NC: Information Age Publishing.
     [Google Scholar]
  37. Wang, X.Y
    . (ed) 1996  A View from Within: A Case Study of Chinese Heritage Community Language Schools in the United States . Washington DC: The National Foreign Language Center.
     [Google Scholar]
  38. World Affairs Council of Pittsburgh
    World Affairs Council of Pittsburgh 2005 from www.worldpittsburgh.org(20January  2009).
  39. Zhang, D . & Slaughter-Defoe, D.T
    2009 Language attitudes and heritage language maintenance among Chinese immigrant families in the USA. Language, Culture and Curriculum 22: 77–93. doi: 10.1080/07908310902935940
     https://doi.org/10.1080/07908310902935940 [Google Scholar]

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