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oa 1.1.5. The twentieth century

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This chapter offers an overview of tendencies in manuscript revision habits over the twentieth century, providing examples from twenty different writers. While the typewriter was already widely used by the end of the nineteenth century, handwriting remained the primary mode of initial literary composition until well into the twentieth; the first section of this chapter explores this practice and variations on it. Around mid-century, writers were more actively exploring the creative opportunities offered by composition on a typewriter. The chapter’s final section explores the effect of word-processing technologies on authors’ revision habits, as well as the advent of the “born digital” manuscript, and the challenge presented by the digital archive.

References

  1. Allen, E. J. F.
    2014 “On the Early Letters of Ernest Hemingway: Teasing, Typewriting, Editing.” Textual Cultures9 (1): 95–111. 10.14434/tc.v9i1.4252
     https://doi.org/10.14434/tc.v9i1.4252 [Google Scholar]
  2. Attridge, Derek
    2006 “The Body Writing: Joyce’s Pen.” European Joyce Studies17: 47–62. 10.1163/9789401202558_006
     https://doi.org/10.1163/9789401202558_006 [Google Scholar]
  3. Barnes, Julian
    2000 “The Art of Fiction No. 165.” Interview by Shusha Guppy . The Paris Review157: 54–84.
     [Google Scholar]
  4. Becker, Devin , and Collier Nogues
    2012 “Saving-Over, Over-Saving, and the Future Mess of Writers’ Digital Archives: A Survey Report on the Personal Digital Archiving Practices of Emerging Writers.” The American Archivist75 (2): 482–513. 10.17723/aarc.75.2.t024180533382067
     https://doi.org/10.17723/aarc.75.2.t024180533382067 [Google Scholar]
  5. Benzon, Paul
    2010 “Lost in Transcription: Postwar Typewriting Culture, Andy Warhol’s Bad Book, and the Standardization of Error.” PMLA125 (1): 92–106. 10.1632/pmla.2010.125.1.92
     https://doi.org/10.1632/pmla.2010.125.1.92 [Google Scholar]
  6. Berryman, John
    1972 “The Art of Poetry No. 16.” Interview by Peter A. Stitt . The Paris Review53: 177–207.
     [Google Scholar]
  7. Bishop, Ted
    2019 “Getting a Hold on Haddock: Virginia Woolf’s Inks.” InVirginia Woolf and the World of Books, ed. by Nicola Wilson and Claire Battershill , 1–19. Clemson: Clemson University Press.
     [Google Scholar]
  8. Bosanquet, Theodora
    1924 Henry James at Work. London: The Hogarth Press.
     [Google Scholar]
  9. Boulton, James T.
    1992 “General Editor’s Preface.” The Cambridge Edition of the Works of D. H. Lawrence. InThe Fox, The Captain’s Doll, The Ladybird, ed. by Dieter Mehl . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
     [Google Scholar]
  10. Connor, Steven
    1999 “Modernism and the Writing Hand.” www.stevenconnor.com/modhand.htm
  11. Creasy, Matthew
    2011 Errears and Erroriboose: Joyce and Error. Amsterdam: Rodopi Press. 10.1163/9789401200103
     https://doi.org/10.1163/9789401200103 [Google Scholar]
  12. Crispi, Luca , Sam Slote , and Dirk Van Hulle
    2007 “Introduction.” InHow Joyce Wrote ‘Finnegans Wake’: A Chapter-By-Chapter Genetic Guide, ed. by Luca Crispi and Sam Slote , 3–48. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.
     [Google Scholar]
  13. Cunnell, Howard
    2007 “Fast This Time: Jack Kerouac and the Writing of On the Road .” In Kerouac, Jack . On the Road, 1–52. London: Penguin.
     [Google Scholar]
  14. DeLillo, Don
    1993 “The Art of Fiction No. 135.” Interview by Adam Begley . The Paris Review128. https://www.theparisreview.org/interviews/1887/the-art-of-fiction-no-135-don-delillo
     [Google Scholar]
  15. Drabble, Margaret
    1978 “The Art of Fiction No. 70.” Interview by Barbara Milton . The Paris Review74. https://www.theparisreview.org/interviews/3440/the-art-of-fiction-no-70-margaret-drabble
     [Google Scholar]
  16. Durrell, Lawrence
    1998 Conversations, ed. by Earl G. Ingersoll . Cranbury: Associated University Presses.
     [Google Scholar]
  17. Eliot, T. S.
    1959 “The Art of Poetry No. 1.” Interview by Donald Hall . The Paris Review21. https://www.theparisreview.org/interviews/4738/the-art-of-poetry-no-1-t-s-eliot
     [Google Scholar]
  18. Ferguson, Rex
    2014 “The Literary Hand: Handwriting, Fingerprinting, Typewriting.” Critical Quarterly56 (1): 40–55. 10.1111/criq.12087
     https://doi.org/10.1111/criq.12087 [Google Scholar]
  19. Finney, Brian
    1973 “Two Missing Pages from ‘The Ladybird’.” Review of English Studies24: 191–192. 10.1093/res/XXIV.93.191
     https://doi.org/10.1093/res/XXIV.93.191 [Google Scholar]
  20. Gillott, Brendan C.
    2018 “Charles Olson’s ‘Projective Verse’ and the Inscription of the Breath.” Humanities7 (4). https://www.mdpi.com/2076-0787/7/4/108. 10.3390/h7040108
     https://doi.org/10.3390/h7040108 [Google Scholar]
  21. Goody, Alex
    2011 Technology, Literature and Culture. Cambridge: Polity.
     [Google Scholar]
  22. Heidegger, Martin
    1992 Parmenides. trans. by André Schuwer and Richard Rojcewicz . Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
     [Google Scholar]
  23. Hemingway, Ernest
    1958 “The Art of Fiction No. 21.” Interview by George Plimpton . The Paris Review18. https://www.theparisreview.org/interviews/4825/the-art-of-fiction-no-21-ernest-hemingway
     [Google Scholar]
  24. Hughes, Ted
    1995 “The Art of Poetry No. 71.” Interview by Drue Heinz . The Paris Review134. https://www.theparisreview.org/interviews/1669/the-art-of-poetry-no-71-ted-hughes
     [Google Scholar]
  25. Ishiguro, Kazuo
    2008 “The Art of Fiction No. 196.” Interview by Susannah Hunnewell . The Paris Review184. https://www.theparisreview.org/interviews/5829/the-art-of-fiction-no-196-kazuo-ishiguro
     [Google Scholar]
  26. Jolas, Eugene
    1932 “Homage to James Joyce.” transition21: 250–253.
     [Google Scholar]
  27. Joyce, James
    1966 Letters of James Joyce, vol.1, ed. by Stuart Gilbert . New York: Viking Press.
     [Google Scholar]
  28. McEwan, Ian
    2002 “The Art of Fiction No. 173.” Interview by Adam Begley . The Paris Review162: 31–60.
     [Google Scholar]
  29. McLuhan, Marshall
    1964 Understanding Media: The Extensions of Man. Abingdon and New York: Routledge.
     [Google Scholar]
  30. Oates, Joyce Carol
    1978 “The Art of Fiction No. 72.” Interview by Robert Phillips . The Paris Review74: 198–226.
     [Google Scholar]
  31. Olson, Charles
    1997 Collected Prose, ed. by Donald Allen and Benjamin Friedlander . Berkeley, Los Angeles and London: University of California Press.
     [Google Scholar]
  32. Perloff, Marjorie
    1977 “In Favor of One’s Time (1954–61): Frank O’Hara.” The American Poetry Review6 (3): 6–16.
     [Google Scholar]
  33. Richardson, Dorothy
    1919 Letter to Margaret Anderson, and Jane Heap. n. d.; c. 8May 1919; ALS 1p. University of Wisconsin, Milwaukee.
     [Google Scholar]
  34. Richardson, Dorothy
    1924? Letter to Bryher. n.d.; c.September 1924 Bryher Papers. General Collection, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library.
     [Google Scholar]
  35. 1924 “About Punctuation.” The Adelphi1(11): 990–996.
     [Google Scholar]
  36. 1938 “Foreword.” InPilgrimage I, 9–12. London: J. M. Dent & Sons.
     [Google Scholar]
  37. Ricks, Christopher , and Jim McCue
    2015 “ The Waste Land: Headnote.” InThe Poems of T. S. Eliot Volume 1: Collected and Uncollected Poems, ed. by Christopher Ricks and Jim McCue , 547–586. London: Faber and Faber.
     [Google Scholar]
  38. Robinson, Marilynne
    2008 “The Art of Fiction No. 198.” Interview by Sarah Fay . The Paris Review186. https://www.theparisreview.org/interviews/5863/the-art-of-fiction-no-198-marilynne-robinson
     [Google Scholar]
  39. Roth, Philip
    1984 “The Art of Fiction No. 84.” Interview by Hermione Lee . The Paris Review93: 214–247.
     [Google Scholar]
  40. Smith, Zadie
    2009 Changing my Mind: Occasional Essays. London: Penguin.
     [Google Scholar]
  41. 2012 NW. London: Hamish Hamilton.
     [Google Scholar]
  42. Spinosa, Dani
    2020 OO: Typewriter Poems. Ontario: Invisible Publishing.
     [Google Scholar]
  43. Stannard, Martin
    1995 “A Note on the Text.” In Ford Madox Ford , The Good Soldier, ed. by Martin Stannard , 179–193. New York: W. W. Norton & Company.
     [Google Scholar]
  44. Sullivan, Hannah
    2013 The Work of Revision. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
     [Google Scholar]
  45. 2015 “‘Still Doing It by Hand’: Auden and the Typewriter.” InAuden at Work, ed. by Bonnie Costello and Rachel Galvin , 4–23. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. 10.1007/978‑1‑137‑45293‑1_2
     https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-137-45293-1_2 [Google Scholar]
  46. Trevor, William
    1989 “The Art of Fiction No. 108.” Interview by Mira Stout . The Paris Review110: 118–151.
     [Google Scholar]
  47. Van Hulle, Dirk
    2014 Modern Manuscripts: The Extended Mind and Creative Undoing from Darwin to Beckett and Beyond. London: Bloomsbury.
     [Google Scholar]
  48. Williams, Tennessee
    1981 “The Art of Theater No. 5.” Interview by Dotson Rader . The Paris Review81: 145–185.
     [Google Scholar]
  49. Woolf, Virginia
    1977a The Diary of Virginia Woolf: Volume 1, ed. by Anne Olivier Bell . London: The Hogarth Press.
     [Google Scholar]
  50. 1977b The Letters of Virginia Woolf 1923–1928: Volume3, ed. by Nigel Nicolson , and Joanne Trautmann . London: The Hogarth Press.
     [Google Scholar]
  51. 1982 The Diary of Virginia Woolf: Volume 4, ed. by Anne Olivier Bell , and Andrew McNeillie . London: The Hogarth Press.
     [Google Scholar]
  52. 1993 A Room of One’s Own and Three Guineas. London: Penguin.
     [Google Scholar]

References

  1. Allen, E. J. F.
    2014 “On the Early Letters of Ernest Hemingway: Teasing, Typewriting, Editing.” Textual Cultures9 (1): 95–111. 10.14434/tc.v9i1.4252
     https://doi.org/10.14434/tc.v9i1.4252 [Google Scholar]
  2. Attridge, Derek
    2006 “The Body Writing: Joyce’s Pen.” European Joyce Studies17: 47–62. 10.1163/9789401202558_006
     https://doi.org/10.1163/9789401202558_006 [Google Scholar]
  3. Barnes, Julian
    2000 “The Art of Fiction No. 165.” Interview by Shusha Guppy . The Paris Review157: 54–84.
     [Google Scholar]
  4. Becker, Devin , and Collier Nogues
    2012 “Saving-Over, Over-Saving, and the Future Mess of Writers’ Digital Archives: A Survey Report on the Personal Digital Archiving Practices of Emerging Writers.” The American Archivist75 (2): 482–513. 10.17723/aarc.75.2.t024180533382067
     https://doi.org/10.17723/aarc.75.2.t024180533382067 [Google Scholar]
  5. Benzon, Paul
    2010 “Lost in Transcription: Postwar Typewriting Culture, Andy Warhol’s Bad Book, and the Standardization of Error.” PMLA125 (1): 92–106. 10.1632/pmla.2010.125.1.92
     https://doi.org/10.1632/pmla.2010.125.1.92 [Google Scholar]
  6. Berryman, John
    1972 “The Art of Poetry No. 16.” Interview by Peter A. Stitt . The Paris Review53: 177–207.
     [Google Scholar]
  7. Bishop, Ted
    2019 “Getting a Hold on Haddock: Virginia Woolf’s Inks.” InVirginia Woolf and the World of Books, ed. by Nicola Wilson and Claire Battershill , 1–19. Clemson: Clemson University Press.
     [Google Scholar]
  8. Bosanquet, Theodora
    1924 Henry James at Work. London: The Hogarth Press.
     [Google Scholar]
  9. Boulton, James T.
    1992 “General Editor’s Preface.” The Cambridge Edition of the Works of D. H. Lawrence. InThe Fox, The Captain’s Doll, The Ladybird, ed. by Dieter Mehl . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
     [Google Scholar]
  10. Connor, Steven
    1999 “Modernism and the Writing Hand.” www.stevenconnor.com/modhand.htm
  11. Creasy, Matthew
    2011 Errears and Erroriboose: Joyce and Error. Amsterdam: Rodopi Press. 10.1163/9789401200103
     https://doi.org/10.1163/9789401200103 [Google Scholar]
  12. Crispi, Luca , Sam Slote , and Dirk Van Hulle
    2007 “Introduction.” InHow Joyce Wrote ‘Finnegans Wake’: A Chapter-By-Chapter Genetic Guide, ed. by Luca Crispi and Sam Slote , 3–48. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.
     [Google Scholar]
  13. Cunnell, Howard
    2007 “Fast This Time: Jack Kerouac and the Writing of On the Road .” In Kerouac, Jack . On the Road, 1–52. London: Penguin.
     [Google Scholar]
  14. DeLillo, Don
    1993 “The Art of Fiction No. 135.” Interview by Adam Begley . The Paris Review128. https://www.theparisreview.org/interviews/1887/the-art-of-fiction-no-135-don-delillo
     [Google Scholar]
  15. Drabble, Margaret
    1978 “The Art of Fiction No. 70.” Interview by Barbara Milton . The Paris Review74. https://www.theparisreview.org/interviews/3440/the-art-of-fiction-no-70-margaret-drabble
     [Google Scholar]
  16. Durrell, Lawrence
    1998 Conversations, ed. by Earl G. Ingersoll . Cranbury: Associated University Presses.
     [Google Scholar]
  17. Eliot, T. S.
    1959 “The Art of Poetry No. 1.” Interview by Donald Hall . The Paris Review21. https://www.theparisreview.org/interviews/4738/the-art-of-poetry-no-1-t-s-eliot
     [Google Scholar]
  18. Ferguson, Rex
    2014 “The Literary Hand: Handwriting, Fingerprinting, Typewriting.” Critical Quarterly56 (1): 40–55. 10.1111/criq.12087
     https://doi.org/10.1111/criq.12087 [Google Scholar]
  19. Finney, Brian
    1973 “Two Missing Pages from ‘The Ladybird’.” Review of English Studies24: 191–192. 10.1093/res/XXIV.93.191
     https://doi.org/10.1093/res/XXIV.93.191 [Google Scholar]
  20. Gillott, Brendan C.
    2018 “Charles Olson’s ‘Projective Verse’ and the Inscription of the Breath.” Humanities7 (4). https://www.mdpi.com/2076-0787/7/4/108. 10.3390/h7040108
     https://doi.org/10.3390/h7040108 [Google Scholar]
  21. Goody, Alex
    2011 Technology, Literature and Culture. Cambridge: Polity.
     [Google Scholar]
  22. Heidegger, Martin
    1992 Parmenides. trans. by André Schuwer and Richard Rojcewicz . Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
     [Google Scholar]
  23. Hemingway, Ernest
    1958 “The Art of Fiction No. 21.” Interview by George Plimpton . The Paris Review18. https://www.theparisreview.org/interviews/4825/the-art-of-fiction-no-21-ernest-hemingway
     [Google Scholar]
  24. Hughes, Ted
    1995 “The Art of Poetry No. 71.” Interview by Drue Heinz . The Paris Review134. https://www.theparisreview.org/interviews/1669/the-art-of-poetry-no-71-ted-hughes
     [Google Scholar]
  25. Ishiguro, Kazuo
    2008 “The Art of Fiction No. 196.” Interview by Susannah Hunnewell . The Paris Review184. https://www.theparisreview.org/interviews/5829/the-art-of-fiction-no-196-kazuo-ishiguro
     [Google Scholar]
  26. Jolas, Eugene
    1932 “Homage to James Joyce.” transition21: 250–253.
     [Google Scholar]
  27. Joyce, James
    1966 Letters of James Joyce, vol.1, ed. by Stuart Gilbert . New York: Viking Press.
     [Google Scholar]
  28. McEwan, Ian
    2002 “The Art of Fiction No. 173.” Interview by Adam Begley . The Paris Review162: 31–60.
     [Google Scholar]
  29. McLuhan, Marshall
    1964 Understanding Media: The Extensions of Man. Abingdon and New York: Routledge.
     [Google Scholar]
  30. Oates, Joyce Carol
    1978 “The Art of Fiction No. 72.” Interview by Robert Phillips . The Paris Review74: 198–226.
     [Google Scholar]
  31. Olson, Charles
    1997 Collected Prose, ed. by Donald Allen and Benjamin Friedlander . Berkeley, Los Angeles and London: University of California Press.
     [Google Scholar]
  32. Perloff, Marjorie
    1977 “In Favor of One’s Time (1954–61): Frank O’Hara.” The American Poetry Review6 (3): 6–16.
     [Google Scholar]
  33. Richardson, Dorothy
    1919 Letter to Margaret Anderson, and Jane Heap. n. d.; c. 8May 1919; ALS 1p. University of Wisconsin, Milwaukee.
     [Google Scholar]
  34. Richardson, Dorothy
    1924? Letter to Bryher. n.d.; c.September 1924 Bryher Papers. General Collection, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library.
     [Google Scholar]
  35. 1924 “About Punctuation.” The Adelphi1(11): 990–996.
     [Google Scholar]
  36. 1938 “Foreword.” InPilgrimage I, 9–12. London: J. M. Dent & Sons.
     [Google Scholar]
  37. Ricks, Christopher , and Jim McCue
    2015 “ The Waste Land: Headnote.” InThe Poems of T. S. Eliot Volume 1: Collected and Uncollected Poems, ed. by Christopher Ricks and Jim McCue , 547–586. London: Faber and Faber.
     [Google Scholar]
  38. Robinson, Marilynne
    2008 “The Art of Fiction No. 198.” Interview by Sarah Fay . The Paris Review186. https://www.theparisreview.org/interviews/5863/the-art-of-fiction-no-198-marilynne-robinson
     [Google Scholar]
  39. Roth, Philip
    1984 “The Art of Fiction No. 84.” Interview by Hermione Lee . The Paris Review93: 214–247.
     [Google Scholar]
  40. Smith, Zadie
    2009 Changing my Mind: Occasional Essays. London: Penguin.
     [Google Scholar]
  41. 2012 NW. London: Hamish Hamilton.
     [Google Scholar]
  42. Spinosa, Dani
    2020 OO: Typewriter Poems. Ontario: Invisible Publishing.
     [Google Scholar]
  43. Stannard, Martin
    1995 “A Note on the Text.” In Ford Madox Ford , The Good Soldier, ed. by Martin Stannard , 179–193. New York: W. W. Norton & Company.
     [Google Scholar]
  44. Sullivan, Hannah
    2013 The Work of Revision. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
     [Google Scholar]
  45. 2015 “‘Still Doing It by Hand’: Auden and the Typewriter.” InAuden at Work, ed. by Bonnie Costello and Rachel Galvin , 4–23. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. 10.1007/978‑1‑137‑45293‑1_2
     https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-137-45293-1_2 [Google Scholar]
  46. Trevor, William
    1989 “The Art of Fiction No. 108.” Interview by Mira Stout . The Paris Review110: 118–151.
     [Google Scholar]
  47. Van Hulle, Dirk
    2014 Modern Manuscripts: The Extended Mind and Creative Undoing from Darwin to Beckett and Beyond. London: Bloomsbury.
     [Google Scholar]
  48. Williams, Tennessee
    1981 “The Art of Theater No. 5.” Interview by Dotson Rader . The Paris Review81: 145–185.
     [Google Scholar]
  49. Woolf, Virginia
    1977a The Diary of Virginia Woolf: Volume 1, ed. by Anne Olivier Bell . London: The Hogarth Press.
     [Google Scholar]
  50. 1977b The Letters of Virginia Woolf 1923–1928: Volume3, ed. by Nigel Nicolson , and Joanne Trautmann . London: The Hogarth Press.
     [Google Scholar]
  51. 1982 The Diary of Virginia Woolf: Volume 4, ed. by Anne Olivier Bell , and Andrew McNeillie . London: The Hogarth Press.
     [Google Scholar]
  52. 1993 A Room of One’s Own and Three Guineas. London: Penguin.
     [Google Scholar]

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