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Chapter 16. Collective identities in the online self-representation of conspiracy theorists

The cases of climate change denial, ‘Deep State’ and ‘Big Pharma’

image of Chapter 16. Collective identities in the online self-representation of conspiracy theorists

A possible explanation for the success of conspiracy theories among some people is that the amount, accuracy and reliability of information is often not what appeals most to an audience. Indeed, conspiracy theory endorsement may be favoured by the opportunity it offers people to identify with a set of values and self-images, as well as to feel part of a wider community of like-minded people. This makes identity an essential element for the dissemination of conspiracy theories. This chapter focuses on the linguistic construction of the identity of conspiracy theory supporters’ groups in six online articles promoting conspiracist content by applying Koller’s (2012) model for the analysis of collective identities. Results highlight a variety of strategies across and within conspiracy theories, as well as a convergence towards notions of individuality, humanity and intellectual and moral superiority which conspiracist groups attribute to themselves.

  • Affiliations: 1: University of Bergamo

References

  1. Abrams, Dominic , and Michael A. Hogg
    1990 “An Introduction to the Social Identity Approach.” InSocial Identity Theory: Constructive and Critical Advances, ed. by Dominic Abrams and Michael A. Hogg , 1–9. Springer Verlag.
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    2018 AntConc (version 3.5.7). Tokyo, Japan: Waseda University. www.laurenceanthony.net/software. Last accessed17/03/2022.
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  3. Barkun, Michael
    2016 “Conspiracy Theories as Stigmatized Knowledge.” Diogenes62 (3–4): 114–20. 10.1177/0392192116669288
     https://doi.org/10.1177/0392192116669288 [Google Scholar]
  4. Blaskiewicz, Robert
    2013 “The Big Pharma Conspiracy Theory.” Medical Writing22 (4): 259–261. 10.1179/2047480613Z.000000000142
     https://doi.org/10.1179/2047480613Z.000000000142 [Google Scholar]
  5. Byford, Jovan
    2011 Conspiracy Theories: A Critical Introduction. Houndmills, New York: Palgrave Macmillan. 10.1057/9780230349216
     https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230349216 [Google Scholar]
  6. Davies, Edward
    2013 “Can Big Pharma Put Patients First?” BMJ346: f3285–f3285. 10.1136/bmj.f3285
     https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.f3285 [Google Scholar]
  7. Douglas, Karen M. , Joseph E. Uscinski , Robbie M. Sutton , Aleksandra Cichocka , Turkay Nefes , Chee Siang Ang , and Farzin Deravi
    2019 “Understanding Conspiracy Theories.” Political Psychology40: 3–35. 10.1111/pops.12568
     https://doi.org/10.1111/pops.12568 [Google Scholar]
  8. Dunlap, Riley E. , and Aaron M. McCright
    2011 “Organized Climate Change Denial.” InThe Oxford Handbook of Climate Change and Society, ed. by John S. Dryzek , Richard B. Norgaard , and David Schlosberg , 1:144–160. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press.
     [Google Scholar]
  9. Eckert, Penelope
    2006 “Communities of Practice.” Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics2 (2006): 683–685. 10.1016/B0‑08‑044854‑2/01276‑1
     https://doi.org/10.1016/B0-08-044854-2/01276-1 [Google Scholar]
  10. Federico, Christopher M. , Allison L. Williams , and Joseph A. Vitriol
    2020 “The Role of System Identity Threat in Conspiracy Theory Endorsement.” European Journal of Social Psychology48 (7): 927–938. 10.1002/ejsp.2495
     https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.2495 [Google Scholar]
  11. Ferner, Robin E.
    2005 “The Influence of Big Pharma.” BMJ330 (7496): 855–856. 10.1136/bmj.330.7496.855
     https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.330.7496.855 [Google Scholar]
  12. Gee, James Paul
    2011 An Introduction to Discourse Analysis: Theory and Method. New York, London: Routledge.
     [Google Scholar]
  13. Gilman, Nils , Doug Randall , and Peter Schwartz
    2011 “Climate Change and “Security”.” InThe Oxford Handbook of Climate Change and Society, ed. by John S. Dryzek , Richard B. Norgaard , and David Schlosberg , 251–266. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press.
     [Google Scholar]
  14. Halliday, Michael , and Christian M. I. M. Matthiessen
    2004 An Introduction to Functional Grammar. London: Hodder Arnold.
     [Google Scholar]
  15. Heft, Annett , Eva Mayerhöffer , Susanne Reinhardt , and Curd Knüpfer
    2020 “Beyond Breitbart: Comparing Right-Wing Digital News Infrastructures in Six Western Democracies.” Policy & Internet12 (1): 20–45. 10.1002/poi3.219
     https://doi.org/10.1002/poi3.219 [Google Scholar]
  16. Hellinger, Daniel C.
    2019 Conspiracies and Conspiracy Theories in the Age of Trump. Cham: Palgrave Macmillan. 10.1007/978‑3‑319‑98158‑1
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  17. Jamieson, Dale
    2011 “The Nature of the Problem.” InThe Oxford Handbook of Climate Change and Society, ed. by John S. Dryzek , Richard B. Norgaard , and David Schlosberg , 38–54. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press.
     [Google Scholar]
  18. Koller, Veronika
    2012 “How to Analyse Collective Identity in Discourse-Textual and Contextual Parameters.” Critical Approaches to Discourse Analysis across Disciplines5 (2): 19–38.
     [Google Scholar]
  19. 2014 “Applying Social Cognition Research to Critical Discourse Studies: The Case of Collective Identities.” InContemporary Critical Discourse Studies, ed. by Christopher Hart and Piotr Cap , 147–166. London, New Delhi, New York, Sydney: Bloomsbury.
     [Google Scholar]
  20. Lakoff, George , and Mark Johnson
    1980 Metaphors We Live By. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
     [Google Scholar]
  21. Lefor, Alan T.
    2005 “Scientific Misconduct and Unethical Human Experimentation: Historic Parallels and Moral Implications.” Nutrition21 (7–8): 878–882. 10.1016/j.nut.2004.10.011
     https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nut.2004.10.011 [Google Scholar]
  22. Martin, James R. , and Peter R. White
    2005 The Language of Evaluation: Appraisal in English. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. 10.1057/9780230511910
     https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230511910 [Google Scholar]
  23. McIntyre, Lee
    2018 Post-Truth. Cambridge, MA, London: MIT Press. 10.7551/mitpress/11483.001.0001
     https://doi.org/10.7551/mitpress/11483.001.0001 [Google Scholar]
  24. Miller, Joanne M. , and Kyle L. Saunders
    2016 “Conspiracy Theories in the United States: More Commonplace Than Extraordinary.” Critical Review28 (1): 127–136. 10.1080/08913811.2016.1172802
     https://doi.org/10.1080/08913811.2016.1172802 [Google Scholar]
  25. Oliver, J. Eric , and Thomas J. Wood
    2018 Enchanted America: How Intuition and Reason Divide Our Politics. Chicago, London: University of Chicago Press. 10.7208/chicago/9780226578644.001.0001
     https://doi.org/10.7208/chicago/9780226578644.001.0001 [Google Scholar]
  26. Petryna, Adriana
    2007 “Clinical Trials Offshored: On Private Sector Science and Public Health.” BioSocieties2 (1): 21–40. 10.1017/S1745855207005030
     https://doi.org/10.1017/S1745855207005030 [Google Scholar]
  27. Rae, Maria
    2020 “Hyperpartisan News: Rethinking the Media for Populist Politics.” New Media & Society23 (5): 1117–1132. 10.1177/1461444820910416
     https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444820910416 [Google Scholar]
  28. Shoemaker, Sydney
    2006 “Identity & Identities.” Daedalus135 (4): 40–48. 10.1162/daed.2006.135.4.40
     https://doi.org/10.1162/daed.2006.135.4.40 [Google Scholar]
  29. Slobodian, Quinn
    2020 “How the “great Reset” of Capitalism Became an Anti-Lockdown Conspiracy.” The Guardian, 4December 2020 https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2020/dec/04/great-reset-capitalism-became-anti-lockdown-conspiracy. Last accessed17/03/2022.
     [Google Scholar]
  30. Sternisko, Anni , Aleksandra Cichocka , and Jay J. Van Bavel
    2020 “The Dark Side of Social Movements: Social Identity, Non-Conformity, and the Lure of Conspiracy Theories.” Current Opinion in Psychology35: 1–6. 10.1016/j.copsyc.2020.02.007
     https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2020.02.007 [Google Scholar]
  31. Stets, Jan E. , and Peter J. Burke
    2000 “Identity Theory and Social Identity Theory.” Social Psychology Quarterly63 (3): 224–237. 10.2307/2695870
     https://doi.org/10.2307/2695870 [Google Scholar]
  32. Van den Bulck, H. , and A. Hyzen
    2020 “Of Lizards and Ideological Entrepreneurs: Alex Jones and Infowars in the Relationship Between Populist Nationalism and the Post-Global Media Ecology.” International Communication Gazette82 (1): 42–59. 10.1177/1748048519880726
     https://doi.org/10.1177/1748048519880726 [Google Scholar]
  33. Van Leeuwen, Theo
    1996 “The Representation of Social Actors.” InTexts and Practices: Readings in Critical Discourse Analysis, ed. by Carmen Rosa Caldas-Coulthard and Malcolm Coulthard , 1: 32–70. London, New York: Routledge.
     [Google Scholar]
  34. Varis, Piia
    2019a “Conspiracy Theorising Online: Memes as a Conspiracy Theory Genre.” Tilburg Papers in Culture Studies238.
     [Google Scholar]
  35. 2019b “Conspiracy theories and climate change denial with Piia Varis – Babylon is Burning, episode 9.” Interview by Mariek Vanden Abeele . Babylon is Burning, Babylon, Center for the study of Superdiversity (Tilburg University) and Diggit Magazine, December15 2019 Video, 23:40. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2cLlxUX-PKE. Last accessed17/03/2022.
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  36. Williamson, Elizabeth , and Emily Steel
    2018 “Conspiracy Theories Made Alex Jones Very Rich. They May Bring Him Down.” The New York Times, 7September 2018 https://www.nytimes.com/2018/09/07/us/politics/alex-jones-business-infowars-conspiracy.html. Last accessed17/03/2022.
     [Google Scholar]

References

  1. Abrams, Dominic , and Michael A. Hogg
    1990 “An Introduction to the Social Identity Approach.” InSocial Identity Theory: Constructive and Critical Advances, ed. by Dominic Abrams and Michael A. Hogg , 1–9. Springer Verlag.
     [Google Scholar]
  2. Anthony, Laurence
    2018 AntConc (version 3.5.7). Tokyo, Japan: Waseda University. www.laurenceanthony.net/software. Last accessed17/03/2022.
     [Google Scholar]
  3. Barkun, Michael
    2016 “Conspiracy Theories as Stigmatized Knowledge.” Diogenes62 (3–4): 114–20. 10.1177/0392192116669288
     https://doi.org/10.1177/0392192116669288 [Google Scholar]
  4. Blaskiewicz, Robert
    2013 “The Big Pharma Conspiracy Theory.” Medical Writing22 (4): 259–261. 10.1179/2047480613Z.000000000142
     https://doi.org/10.1179/2047480613Z.000000000142 [Google Scholar]
  5. Byford, Jovan
    2011 Conspiracy Theories: A Critical Introduction. Houndmills, New York: Palgrave Macmillan. 10.1057/9780230349216
     https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230349216 [Google Scholar]
  6. Davies, Edward
    2013 “Can Big Pharma Put Patients First?” BMJ346: f3285–f3285. 10.1136/bmj.f3285
     https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.f3285 [Google Scholar]
  7. Douglas, Karen M. , Joseph E. Uscinski , Robbie M. Sutton , Aleksandra Cichocka , Turkay Nefes , Chee Siang Ang , and Farzin Deravi
    2019 “Understanding Conspiracy Theories.” Political Psychology40: 3–35. 10.1111/pops.12568
     https://doi.org/10.1111/pops.12568 [Google Scholar]
  8. Dunlap, Riley E. , and Aaron M. McCright
    2011 “Organized Climate Change Denial.” InThe Oxford Handbook of Climate Change and Society, ed. by John S. Dryzek , Richard B. Norgaard , and David Schlosberg , 1:144–160. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press.
     [Google Scholar]
  9. Eckert, Penelope
    2006 “Communities of Practice.” Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics2 (2006): 683–685. 10.1016/B0‑08‑044854‑2/01276‑1
     https://doi.org/10.1016/B0-08-044854-2/01276-1 [Google Scholar]
  10. Federico, Christopher M. , Allison L. Williams , and Joseph A. Vitriol
    2020 “The Role of System Identity Threat in Conspiracy Theory Endorsement.” European Journal of Social Psychology48 (7): 927–938. 10.1002/ejsp.2495
     https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.2495 [Google Scholar]
  11. Ferner, Robin E.
    2005 “The Influence of Big Pharma.” BMJ330 (7496): 855–856. 10.1136/bmj.330.7496.855
     https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.330.7496.855 [Google Scholar]
  12. Gee, James Paul
    2011 An Introduction to Discourse Analysis: Theory and Method. New York, London: Routledge.
     [Google Scholar]
  13. Gilman, Nils , Doug Randall , and Peter Schwartz
    2011 “Climate Change and “Security”.” InThe Oxford Handbook of Climate Change and Society, ed. by John S. Dryzek , Richard B. Norgaard , and David Schlosberg , 251–266. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press.
     [Google Scholar]
  14. Halliday, Michael , and Christian M. I. M. Matthiessen
    2004 An Introduction to Functional Grammar. London: Hodder Arnold.
     [Google Scholar]
  15. Heft, Annett , Eva Mayerhöffer , Susanne Reinhardt , and Curd Knüpfer
    2020 “Beyond Breitbart: Comparing Right-Wing Digital News Infrastructures in Six Western Democracies.” Policy & Internet12 (1): 20–45. 10.1002/poi3.219
     https://doi.org/10.1002/poi3.219 [Google Scholar]
  16. Hellinger, Daniel C.
    2019 Conspiracies and Conspiracy Theories in the Age of Trump. Cham: Palgrave Macmillan. 10.1007/978‑3‑319‑98158‑1
     https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-98158-1 [Google Scholar]
  17. Jamieson, Dale
    2011 “The Nature of the Problem.” InThe Oxford Handbook of Climate Change and Society, ed. by John S. Dryzek , Richard B. Norgaard , and David Schlosberg , 38–54. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press.
     [Google Scholar]
  18. Koller, Veronika
    2012 “How to Analyse Collective Identity in Discourse-Textual and Contextual Parameters.” Critical Approaches to Discourse Analysis across Disciplines5 (2): 19–38.
     [Google Scholar]
  19. 2014 “Applying Social Cognition Research to Critical Discourse Studies: The Case of Collective Identities.” InContemporary Critical Discourse Studies, ed. by Christopher Hart and Piotr Cap , 147–166. London, New Delhi, New York, Sydney: Bloomsbury.
     [Google Scholar]
  20. Lakoff, George , and Mark Johnson
    1980 Metaphors We Live By. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
     [Google Scholar]
  21. Lefor, Alan T.
    2005 “Scientific Misconduct and Unethical Human Experimentation: Historic Parallels and Moral Implications.” Nutrition21 (7–8): 878–882. 10.1016/j.nut.2004.10.011
     https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nut.2004.10.011 [Google Scholar]
  22. Martin, James R. , and Peter R. White
    2005 The Language of Evaluation: Appraisal in English. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. 10.1057/9780230511910
     https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230511910 [Google Scholar]
  23. McIntyre, Lee
    2018 Post-Truth. Cambridge, MA, London: MIT Press. 10.7551/mitpress/11483.001.0001
     https://doi.org/10.7551/mitpress/11483.001.0001 [Google Scholar]
  24. Miller, Joanne M. , and Kyle L. Saunders
    2016 “Conspiracy Theories in the United States: More Commonplace Than Extraordinary.” Critical Review28 (1): 127–136. 10.1080/08913811.2016.1172802
     https://doi.org/10.1080/08913811.2016.1172802 [Google Scholar]
  25. Oliver, J. Eric , and Thomas J. Wood
    2018 Enchanted America: How Intuition and Reason Divide Our Politics. Chicago, London: University of Chicago Press. 10.7208/chicago/9780226578644.001.0001
     https://doi.org/10.7208/chicago/9780226578644.001.0001 [Google Scholar]
  26. Petryna, Adriana
    2007 “Clinical Trials Offshored: On Private Sector Science and Public Health.” BioSocieties2 (1): 21–40. 10.1017/S1745855207005030
     https://doi.org/10.1017/S1745855207005030 [Google Scholar]
  27. Rae, Maria
    2020 “Hyperpartisan News: Rethinking the Media for Populist Politics.” New Media & Society23 (5): 1117–1132. 10.1177/1461444820910416
     https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444820910416 [Google Scholar]
  28. Shoemaker, Sydney
    2006 “Identity & Identities.” Daedalus135 (4): 40–48. 10.1162/daed.2006.135.4.40
     https://doi.org/10.1162/daed.2006.135.4.40 [Google Scholar]
  29. Slobodian, Quinn
    2020 “How the “great Reset” of Capitalism Became an Anti-Lockdown Conspiracy.” The Guardian, 4December 2020 https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2020/dec/04/great-reset-capitalism-became-anti-lockdown-conspiracy. Last accessed17/03/2022.
     [Google Scholar]
  30. Sternisko, Anni , Aleksandra Cichocka , and Jay J. Van Bavel
    2020 “The Dark Side of Social Movements: Social Identity, Non-Conformity, and the Lure of Conspiracy Theories.” Current Opinion in Psychology35: 1–6. 10.1016/j.copsyc.2020.02.007
     https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2020.02.007 [Google Scholar]
  31. Stets, Jan E. , and Peter J. Burke
    2000 “Identity Theory and Social Identity Theory.” Social Psychology Quarterly63 (3): 224–237. 10.2307/2695870
     https://doi.org/10.2307/2695870 [Google Scholar]
  32. Van den Bulck, H. , and A. Hyzen
    2020 “Of Lizards and Ideological Entrepreneurs: Alex Jones and Infowars in the Relationship Between Populist Nationalism and the Post-Global Media Ecology.” International Communication Gazette82 (1): 42–59. 10.1177/1748048519880726
     https://doi.org/10.1177/1748048519880726 [Google Scholar]
  33. Van Leeuwen, Theo
    1996 “The Representation of Social Actors.” InTexts and Practices: Readings in Critical Discourse Analysis, ed. by Carmen Rosa Caldas-Coulthard and Malcolm Coulthard , 1: 32–70. London, New York: Routledge.
     [Google Scholar]
  34. Varis, Piia
    2019a “Conspiracy Theorising Online: Memes as a Conspiracy Theory Genre.” Tilburg Papers in Culture Studies238.
     [Google Scholar]
  35. 2019b “Conspiracy theories and climate change denial with Piia Varis – Babylon is Burning, episode 9.” Interview by Mariek Vanden Abeele . Babylon is Burning, Babylon, Center for the study of Superdiversity (Tilburg University) and Diggit Magazine, December15 2019 Video, 23:40. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2cLlxUX-PKE. Last accessed17/03/2022.
     [Google Scholar]
  36. Williamson, Elizabeth , and Emily Steel
    2018 “Conspiracy Theories Made Alex Jones Very Rich. They May Bring Him Down.” The New York Times, 7September 2018 https://www.nytimes.com/2018/09/07/us/politics/alex-jones-business-infowars-conspiracy.html. Last accessed17/03/2022.
     [Google Scholar]

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