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Development, language revitalization, and culture

The case of the Mayan languages of Guatemala, and their relevance for African languages

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Language documentation efforts tend to target the most highly endangered languages. However, language endangerment is a complex phenomenon emerging from social, political and other power imbalances in multilingual language ecologies. Long-term solutions for addressing endangerment must therefore address these imbalances at their root causes. Here we share observations and experiences from the Guatemalan context in the hope of opening lines of similar inquiry into African contexts where many languages might be characterized as threatened but not endangered. We cast doubt on common top-down approaches to language support that see bilingual education and linguistic patrimony as strong sustaining forces. Rather, we suggest that providing development services (especially, healthcare) in linguistically and culturally responsible ways is a much more effective language maintenance strategy. Rather than language development, we advocate development through language. We share experiences working with Wuqu’Kawoq: Maya Health Alliance, a healthcare NGO serving Kaqchikel-speaking areas in Guatemala, as support for this model.

References

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    2006a Socio-pragmatic constraints to native or indigenous language education in Cameroon. InSelected Proceedings of the 36th Annual Conference on African Linguistics, Olaoba F. Arasanyin & Michael A. Pemberton (eds), 133–141. Somerville MA: Cascadilla Proceedings Project.
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     [Google Scholar]
  3. Bamgbose, Ayo
    1983 Education in indigenous languages: The West African model of language education. The Journal of Negro Education52(1): 57–64. doi: 10.2307/2294748
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     [Google Scholar]
  5. Brenzinger, Matthias & de Graaf, Tjeerd
    2009 Documenting endangered languages and language maintenance. Contribution to the UNESCO Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS). www.mercator-research.eu/fileadmin/mercator/research_projects_files/endangered_languages/
Article%20EOLSS.doc
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    2006 Engendering Mayan History: Kaqchikel Women as Agents and Conduits of the Past, 1875–1970. New York NY: Routledge.
     [Google Scholar]
  7. Center for Community Based Research
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    1995 Rukemik k’ak’a’ taq tzij: Criterios para la creación de neologismos en Kaqchikel. Guatemala City: Nawal Wuj.
     [Google Scholar]
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  10. Cojtí, Demetrio
    2011 El desarrollo socioeconómico contra el desarrollo de los idiomas indígenas. Proceedings of the Symposium on Teaching and Learning Indigenous Languages of Latin America . Notre Dame IN.https://kellogg.nd.edu/STLILLA/proceedings/cojticuxil_demetrio.pdf
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  12. Czaykowska-Higgins, E
    2009 Research models, community engagement, and linguistic fieldwork: Reflections on working within Canadian indigenous communities. Language Documentation & Conservation3: 15–50.
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  13. England, Nora C
    1998 Mayan efforts toward language preservation. InEndangered Languages: Language Loss and Community Response, Lenore A. Grenoble & Lindsay J. Whaley (eds), 733–743. Cambridge: CUP. doi: 10.1017/CBO9781139166959.005
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  23. Maddox, Marc C
    2010 Chwa’q chik iwonojel: Language Affect, Ideology, and Intergenerational Language Use Patterns in the Quinizilapa Valley of Highland Guatemala. PhD dissertation, Tulane University.
     [Google Scholar]
  24. Magwa, Wiseman
    2007 Language and development: Perspectives from Sub-Saharan Africa. NAWA: Journal of Language and CommunicationJune: 57–68.
     [Google Scholar]
  25. Marshall, Jeffery H
    2009 School quality and learning gains in rural Guatemala. Economics of Education Review28: 207–216. doi: 10.1016/j.econedurev.2007.10.009
     https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econedurev.2007.10.009 [Google Scholar]
  26. Maxwell, Judith M
    2009 Bilingual bicultural education: Best intentions across a cultural divide. InMayas in Postwar Guatemala: Harvest of Violence Revisited. Walter E. Little & Timothy J. Smith (eds), 84–95. Tuscaloosa AL: University of Alabama Press.
     [Google Scholar]
  27. 2011 Revitalización de los idiomas Mayas de Guatemala. In Peter Rohloff , Anne Kraemer Díaz & Juan Ajsivinac Sian , Más que Desarrollo: Memorias de la Primera Conferencia Bienal sobre Desarrollo y Acción Comunitaria, 175–208. Bethel VT: Wuqu’ Kawoq.
     [Google Scholar]
  28. Matsuura, Koichiro
    2007 Languages Matter! Message from the Director-General of UNESCO on the Celebration of 2008, International Year of Languages. Paris: UNESCO.
     [Google Scholar]
  29. McLaughlin, F
    2008 The ascent of Wolof as an urban vernacular and national lingua franca in Senegal. InGlobalization and Language Vitality: Perspectives from Africa, Cécile B. Vigouroux & Salikoko S. Mufwene (eds), 142–70. London: Continuum.
     [Google Scholar]
  30. Ministerio de Salud Pública y Asistencia Social (MSPAS), Instituto Nacional de Estadística, Universidad del Valle de Guatemala, USAID, Agencia Sueca de Cooperación para el Desarollo Internacional, CDC, UNICEF, UNFPA, PAHO, USAID/Calidad en Salud
    2009 V Encuesta Nacional de Salud Materno Infantil 2008–2009. Guatemala City: MSPAS, et al.
     [Google Scholar]
  31. Mohochi, Sangai
    . n.d. Turning to indigenous languages for increased citizen participation in the African development process. www.codesria.org/IMG/pdf/mohochi.pdf
  32. Mous, Maarten
    2003 Loss of linguistic diversity in Africa. InLanguage Death and Language Maintenance: Theoretical, Practical, and Descriptive Approaches [Current Issues in Linguistic Theory 240], Mark Janse & Sijmen Tol (eds), 156–170. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. doi: 10.1075/cilt.240
     https://doi.org/10.1075/cilt.240 [Google Scholar]
  33. Mufwene, Salikoko S. & Vigouroux, Cécile B
    2008 Colonization, globalization and language vitality in Africa: An introduction. InGlobalization and Language Vitality: Perspectives from Africa, Cécile B. Vigouroux & Salikoko S. Mufwene (eds), 1–31. London: Continuum.
     [Google Scholar]
  34. Nurse, Derek
    2010 The demise of Bantu in Somalia. InEssais de typologie et de linguistique générale. Mélanges offerts à Denis Creissels, Franck Floricic (ed.), 187–199. Lyon: ENS Editions.
     [Google Scholar]
  35. Oficina de Derechos Humanos del Arzobispado de Guatemala
    1998 Guatemala: Nunca Más: Informe del Proyecto lnterdiocesano de Recuperación de la Memoria Histórica.Guatemala City: Oficina de Derechos Humanos del Arzobispado de Guatemala.
     [Google Scholar]
  36. Ohly, Rajmund
    2003 The Tanzanian experiment in pragmatics. Africana Bulletin51: 95–110.
     [Google Scholar]
  37. Penfield, Susan D. , Serratos, A. , Tucker, Benjamin V. , Flores, Amelia , Harper, Gilford , Hill, Johnny & Vasquez, Nora
    2008 Community collaborations: Best practices for North American indigenous language documentation. International Journal of the Sociology of Language191: 187–202.
     [Google Scholar]
  38. Project for the Study of Alternative Education in South Africa (PRAESA)
    2005 Promotion of indigenous languages and home language teaching and learning in the first seven years of schooling in the Eastern Cape Province. Province of the Eastern Cape Department of Education.Cape Town: PRAESA.
  39. Rice, Keren
    2011 Documentary linguistics and community relations. Language Documentation & Conservation5: 187–207.
     [Google Scholar]
  40. Qorro, Martha
    2007 Prospects of mother tongue and bilingual education in Africa: With special reference to Tanzania. In Proceedings of the Conference on Mother Tongue and Bilingual Education, 5–19. Copenhagen: The Danish Education Network .
     [Google Scholar]
  41. Richards, Michael
    2003 Atlas Lingüístico de Guatemala. Guatemala City: Serviprensa.
     [Google Scholar]
  42. Robinson, W
    2003 Transnational Conflicts: Central America, Social Change, and Globalization. London: Verso.
     [Google Scholar]
  43. Robinson, C
    1996 Language Use in Rural Development: An African Perspective. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. doi: 10.1515/9783110869040
     https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110869040 [Google Scholar]
  44. Rohloff, Peter , Kraemer Díaz, Anne & Dasgupta, Shom
    2011 ‘Beyond development’: A critical appraisal of the emergence of small health care non-governmental organizations in rural Guatemala. Human Organization70(Winter): 427–437. doi: 10.17730/humo.70.4.q616gr1p6x6x032q
     https://doi.org/10.17730/humo.70.4.q616gr1p6x6x032q [Google Scholar]
  45. South Africa Ministry of Education
    2002 Language policy for higher education. www.dhet.gov.za/HED%20Policies/Language%20Policy%20for%20Higher%20Education.pdf
  46. Tummons, Emily , Henderson, Robert & Rohloff, Peter
    2011 ‘So that we don’t lose words’: Reconstructing a Kaqchikel medical lexicon. In Proceedings of the First Symposium on Teaching Indigenous Languages of Latin America , 127–135. Bloomington IN: Indiana University.
     [Google Scholar]

References

  1. Anchimbe, Eric A
    2006a Socio-pragmatic constraints to native or indigenous language education in Cameroon. InSelected Proceedings of the 36th Annual Conference on African Linguistics, Olaoba F. Arasanyin & Michael A. Pemberton (eds), 133–141. Somerville MA: Cascadilla Proceedings Project.
     [Google Scholar]
  2. 2006b Functional seclusion and the future of indigenous languages in Africa: The case of Cameroon. InSelected Proceedings of the 35th Annual Conference on African Linguistics, John Mugane , John P. Hutchison & Dee A. Worman (eds), 94–103. Somerville MA: Cascadilla Proceedings Project.
     [Google Scholar]
  3. Bamgbose, Ayo
    1983 Education in indigenous languages: The West African model of language education. The Journal of Negro Education52(1): 57–64. doi: 10.2307/2294748
     https://doi.org/10.2307/2294748 [Google Scholar]
  4. Bradley, David
    2002 Language attitudes: The key factor in language maintenance. InLanguage Endangerment and Language Maintenance, D. Bradley & Maya Bradley (eds), 1–10. New York NY: Routledge Curzon.
     [Google Scholar]
  5. Brenzinger, Matthias & de Graaf, Tjeerd
    2009 Documenting endangered languages and language maintenance. Contribution to the UNESCO Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS). www.mercator-research.eu/fileadmin/mercator/research_projects_files/endangered_languages/
Article%20EOLSS.doc
     [Google Scholar]
  6. Carey, J. David
    2006 Engendering Mayan History: Kaqchikel Women as Agents and Conduits of the Past, 1875–1970. New York NY: Routledge.
     [Google Scholar]
  7. Center for Community Based Research
    2011 <www.communitybasedresearch.ca/Page/View/CBR_definition.html.
  8. Chacach, Martin , Obispo Rodríguez, Jose , Son Chonay, Marliny , del Carmen Tuy, Maria & Maxwell, Judith M
    1995 Rukemik k’ak’a’ taq tzij: Criterios para la creación de neologismos en Kaqchikel. Guatemala City: Nawal Wuj.
     [Google Scholar]
  9. Chase-Dunn, Christopher
    2000 Guatemala in the global system. Journal of Interamerican Studies and World Affairs42(Winter): 109–126. doi: 10.2307/166344
     https://doi.org/10.2307/166344 [Google Scholar]
  10. Cojtí, Demetrio
    2011 El desarrollo socioeconómico contra el desarrollo de los idiomas indígenas. Proceedings of the Symposium on Teaching and Learning Indigenous Languages of Latin America . Notre Dame IN.https://kellogg.nd.edu/STLILLA/proceedings/cojticuxil_demetrio.pdf
     [Google Scholar]
  11. Comisión para el Esclaracimiento Histórico (CEH) 2009 Guatemala: Memoria del Silencio. shr.aaas.org/guatemala/ceh/mds/spanish/
     [Google Scholar]
  12. Czaykowska-Higgins, E
    2009 Research models, community engagement, and linguistic fieldwork: Reflections on working within Canadian indigenous communities. Language Documentation & Conservation3: 15–50.
     [Google Scholar]
  13. England, Nora C
    1998 Mayan efforts toward language preservation. InEndangered Languages: Language Loss and Community Response, Lenore A. Grenoble & Lindsay J. Whaley (eds), 733–743. Cambridge: CUP. doi: 10.1017/CBO9781139166959.005
     https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139166959.005 [Google Scholar]
  14. Fishman, Joshua A
    1991 Reversing Language Shift: Theory and Practice of Assistance to Threatened Languages. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
     [Google Scholar]
  15. Greebon, David
    2011 Educación primaria bilingüe desde el aula. InMás que Desarrollo: Memorias de la Primera Conferencia Bienal sobre Desarrollo y Acción Comunitaria, Peter Rohloff , Anne Kraemer Díaz & Juan Ajsivinac Sian (eds), 175–208. Bethel VT: Wuqu’ Kawoq.
     [Google Scholar]
  16. Grenoble, Lenore & Whaley, Lindsay J
    2006 Saving Languages: An Introduction to Language Revitalization. Cambridge: CUP.
     [Google Scholar]
  17. Harbert, Wayne
    2009 Language and Poverty. Bristol: Multilingual Matters.
     [Google Scholar]
  18. Hill, Jane
    2002 “Expert rhetorics” in advocacy for endangered languages: who is listening and what do they hear?Journal of Linguistic Anthropology12, 119–133.
     [Google Scholar]
  19. Hinton, Leanne
    2001 Language revitalization: An overview. InThe Green Book of Language Revitalization in Practice, Kenneth Hale & Leanne Hinton (eds), 3–18. San Diego CA: Academic Press. doi: 10.1163/9789004261723
     https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004261723 [Google Scholar]
  20. Hornberger, Nancy H
    2008 Can Schools Save Indigenous Languages? Policy and Practice on Four Continents. Houndmills: Palgrave Macmillan. doi: 10.1057/9780230582491
     https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230582491 [Google Scholar]
  21. Hovens, Mart
    2002 Bilingual education in West Africa: Does it work?International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism5: 249–265. doi: 10.1080/13670050208667760
     https://doi.org/10.1080/13670050208667760 [Google Scholar]
  22. López de Palacios, Juan
    1513 El requirimiento. www.ciudadseva.com/textos/otros/requeri.htm
  23. Maddox, Marc C
    2010 Chwa’q chik iwonojel: Language Affect, Ideology, and Intergenerational Language Use Patterns in the Quinizilapa Valley of Highland Guatemala. PhD dissertation, Tulane University.
     [Google Scholar]
  24. Magwa, Wiseman
    2007 Language and development: Perspectives from Sub-Saharan Africa. NAWA: Journal of Language and CommunicationJune: 57–68.
     [Google Scholar]
  25. Marshall, Jeffery H
    2009 School quality and learning gains in rural Guatemala. Economics of Education Review28: 207–216. doi: 10.1016/j.econedurev.2007.10.009
     https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econedurev.2007.10.009 [Google Scholar]
  26. Maxwell, Judith M
    2009 Bilingual bicultural education: Best intentions across a cultural divide. InMayas in Postwar Guatemala: Harvest of Violence Revisited. Walter E. Little & Timothy J. Smith (eds), 84–95. Tuscaloosa AL: University of Alabama Press.
     [Google Scholar]
  27. 2011 Revitalización de los idiomas Mayas de Guatemala. In Peter Rohloff , Anne Kraemer Díaz & Juan Ajsivinac Sian , Más que Desarrollo: Memorias de la Primera Conferencia Bienal sobre Desarrollo y Acción Comunitaria, 175–208. Bethel VT: Wuqu’ Kawoq.
     [Google Scholar]
  28. Matsuura, Koichiro
    2007 Languages Matter! Message from the Director-General of UNESCO on the Celebration of 2008, International Year of Languages. Paris: UNESCO.
     [Google Scholar]
  29. McLaughlin, F
    2008 The ascent of Wolof as an urban vernacular and national lingua franca in Senegal. InGlobalization and Language Vitality: Perspectives from Africa, Cécile B. Vigouroux & Salikoko S. Mufwene (eds), 142–70. London: Continuum.
     [Google Scholar]
  30. Ministerio de Salud Pública y Asistencia Social (MSPAS), Instituto Nacional de Estadística, Universidad del Valle de Guatemala, USAID, Agencia Sueca de Cooperación para el Desarollo Internacional, CDC, UNICEF, UNFPA, PAHO, USAID/Calidad en Salud
    2009 V Encuesta Nacional de Salud Materno Infantil 2008–2009. Guatemala City: MSPAS, et al.
     [Google Scholar]
  31. Mohochi, Sangai
    . n.d. Turning to indigenous languages for increased citizen participation in the African development process. www.codesria.org/IMG/pdf/mohochi.pdf
  32. Mous, Maarten
    2003 Loss of linguistic diversity in Africa. InLanguage Death and Language Maintenance: Theoretical, Practical, and Descriptive Approaches [Current Issues in Linguistic Theory 240], Mark Janse & Sijmen Tol (eds), 156–170. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. doi: 10.1075/cilt.240
     https://doi.org/10.1075/cilt.240 [Google Scholar]
  33. Mufwene, Salikoko S. & Vigouroux, Cécile B
    2008 Colonization, globalization and language vitality in Africa: An introduction. InGlobalization and Language Vitality: Perspectives from Africa, Cécile B. Vigouroux & Salikoko S. Mufwene (eds), 1–31. London: Continuum.
     [Google Scholar]
  34. Nurse, Derek
    2010 The demise of Bantu in Somalia. InEssais de typologie et de linguistique générale. Mélanges offerts à Denis Creissels, Franck Floricic (ed.), 187–199. Lyon: ENS Editions.
     [Google Scholar]
  35. Oficina de Derechos Humanos del Arzobispado de Guatemala
    1998 Guatemala: Nunca Más: Informe del Proyecto lnterdiocesano de Recuperación de la Memoria Histórica.Guatemala City: Oficina de Derechos Humanos del Arzobispado de Guatemala.
     [Google Scholar]
  36. Ohly, Rajmund
    2003 The Tanzanian experiment in pragmatics. Africana Bulletin51: 95–110.
     [Google Scholar]
  37. Penfield, Susan D. , Serratos, A. , Tucker, Benjamin V. , Flores, Amelia , Harper, Gilford , Hill, Johnny & Vasquez, Nora
    2008 Community collaborations: Best practices for North American indigenous language documentation. International Journal of the Sociology of Language191: 187–202.
     [Google Scholar]
  38. Project for the Study of Alternative Education in South Africa (PRAESA)
    2005 Promotion of indigenous languages and home language teaching and learning in the first seven years of schooling in the Eastern Cape Province. Province of the Eastern Cape Department of Education.Cape Town: PRAESA.
  39. Rice, Keren
    2011 Documentary linguistics and community relations. Language Documentation & Conservation5: 187–207.
     [Google Scholar]
  40. Qorro, Martha
    2007 Prospects of mother tongue and bilingual education in Africa: With special reference to Tanzania. In Proceedings of the Conference on Mother Tongue and Bilingual Education, 5–19. Copenhagen: The Danish Education Network .
     [Google Scholar]
  41. Richards, Michael
    2003 Atlas Lingüístico de Guatemala. Guatemala City: Serviprensa.
     [Google Scholar]
  42. Robinson, W
    2003 Transnational Conflicts: Central America, Social Change, and Globalization. London: Verso.
     [Google Scholar]
  43. Robinson, C
    1996 Language Use in Rural Development: An African Perspective. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. doi: 10.1515/9783110869040
     https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110869040 [Google Scholar]
  44. Rohloff, Peter , Kraemer Díaz, Anne & Dasgupta, Shom
    2011 ‘Beyond development’: A critical appraisal of the emergence of small health care non-governmental organizations in rural Guatemala. Human Organization70(Winter): 427–437. doi: 10.17730/humo.70.4.q616gr1p6x6x032q
     https://doi.org/10.17730/humo.70.4.q616gr1p6x6x032q [Google Scholar]
  45. South Africa Ministry of Education
    2002 Language policy for higher education. www.dhet.gov.za/HED%20Policies/Language%20Policy%20for%20Higher%20Education.pdf
  46. Tummons, Emily , Henderson, Robert & Rohloff, Peter
    2011 ‘So that we don’t lose words’: Reconstructing a Kaqchikel medical lexicon. In Proceedings of the First Symposium on Teaching Indigenous Languages of Latin America , 127–135. Bloomington IN: Indiana University.
     [Google Scholar]

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