Tonogenesis in the Gulf of Guinea Creoles

References

1. Agheyisi, Rebecca N.
   1990 A grammar of Edo. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO).
   [Google Scholar]
2. Agostinho, Ana Lívia
   2012 Fieldnotes and data collection — Malabo and Annobón. Manuscript.
   [Google Scholar]
3. Agostinho, Ana Lívia
   2015 Fonologia e método pedagógico do lung’Ie [Phonology and pedagogical method of Lung’Ie]. São Paulo: Universidade de São Paulo, Tese de Doutorado em Filologia e Língua Portuguesa.
   [Google Scholar]
4. Agostinho, Ana Lívia
   2016 Fonologia do lung’Ie [The phonology of Lung’Ie] (Studies in Pidgin & Creole Linguistics 15). München: LINCOM.
   [Google Scholar]
5. Agostinho, Ana Lívia
   2019 Fieldnotes and data collection — São Tomé and Príncipe. Manuscript.
   [Google Scholar]
6. Agostinho, Ana Lívia
   2021 Fa d’Ambô (Equatorial Guinea) — Language snapshot. Language Documentation and Description. –.
   [Google Scholar]
7. Agostinho, Ana Lívia
   2023 Word prosody of African versus European-origin words in Afro-European creoles. Linguistic Typology(). –. 10.1515/lingty‑2022‑0043
   https://doi.org/10.1515/lingty-2022-0043 [Google Scholar]
8. Agostinho, Ana Lívia & Gabriel Antunes de Araujo
   2021 Playing with language: Three language games in the Gulf of Guinea. Language Documentation & Conservation. –.
   [Google Scholar]
9. Agostinho, Ana Lívia, Gabriel Antunes de Araujo & Eduardo Ferreira dos Santos
   2019 Interrogative particle and phrasal pitch-accent in polar questions in Fa d’Ambô. Boletim do Museu Paraense Emílio Goeldi Ciências Humanas. Belém(). –. 10.1590/1981.81222019000300009
   https://doi.org/10.1590/1981.81222019000300009 [Google Scholar]
10. Agostinho, Ana Lívia & Manuele Bandeira
    2025 Gulf of Guinea. InLuana Lamberti & Ana Lívia Agostinho (eds.), Afro-Iberian languages: Contact and sociohistory. Berlin: Language Science Press.
    [Google Scholar]
11. Agostinho, Ana Lívia & Larry M. Hyman
    2021 Word prosody in Lung’Ie: One system or two?Probus(). –. 10.1515/prbs‑2021‑0002
    https://doi.org/10.1515/prbs-2021-0002 [Google Scholar]
12. Agostinho, Ana Lívia & Larry M. Hyman
    2023 Interpreting non-canonical word-prosody in Afro-European contact. InJeroen van de Weijer (ed.), Representing phonological detail, Part II: Syllable, stress, and sign, –. Berlin and Boston: De Gruyter Mouton. 10.1515/9783110730081‑008
    https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110730081-008 [Google Scholar]
13. Agostinho, Ana Lívia & Ariele Helena Holz Nunes
    2023 Fieldnotes and data collection — São Tomé and Príncipe. Manuscript.
    [Google Scholar]
14. Agostinho, Ana Lívia & Ariele Helena Holz Nunes
    2025 Implosives in the Gulf of Guinea creoles. Manuscript submitted for publication.
    [Google Scholar]
15. Agostinho, Ana Lívia & Núbia Ferreira Rech
    2025 Irrealis mood in the creole languages of the Gulf of Guinea. Manuscript.
    [Google Scholar]
16. Almeida, João, Anne Maria Fehn, Margarida Ferreira, Teresa Machado, Tjerk Hagemeijer, Jorge Rocha & Magdalena Gayà-Vidal
    2021 The genes of freedom: Genome-wide insights into marronage, admixture and ethnogenesis in the Gulf of Guinea. Genes(). . 10.3390/genes12060833
    https://doi.org/10.3390/genes12060833 [Google Scholar]
17. Araujo, Gabriel Antunes de & Ana Lívia Agostinho
    2010 Padronização das línguas nacionais de São Tomé e Príncipe [Standardization of São Tomé and Príncipe’s national languages]. Língua e instrumentos linguísticos. –.
    [Google Scholar]
18. Araujo, Gabriel Antunes De & Ana Lívia Agostinho
    2024 Language policy in Equatorial Guinea. InMichael M. Kretzer & Russell H. Kaschula (eds.), Handbook of language policy and education in countries of the Eastern African Community (EAC) and the Economic Community of Central African States (ECCAS), . Leiden: Brill.
    [Google Scholar]
19. Araujo, Gabriel Antunes de, Ana Lívia Agostinho, Alfredo Christofoletti Silveira, Manuele Bandeira & Shirley Freitas
    2013 Fa d’Ambô: língua crioula de Ano Bom [Fa d’Ambô: The creole language of Annobón]. Cadernos de Estudos Lingüísticos. Campinas(). –. 10.20396/cel.v59i1.8648426
    https://doi.org/10.20396/cel.v59i1.8648426 [Google Scholar]
20. Araujo, Gabriel Antunes de, Manuele Bandeira & Ana Lívia Agostinho
    2020 Vowel harmony in the Proto-Creole of the Gulf of Guinea. Entrepalavras(). –. 10.22168/2237‑6321‑11747
    https://doi.org/10.22168/2237-6321-11747 [Google Scholar]
21. Araujo, Gabriel Antunes de & Tjerk Hagemeijer
    2013 Dicionário livre santome-português [Open Santome–Portuguese Dictionary]. São Paulo: Hedra.
    [Google Scholar]
22. Arends, Jacques
    1994 The social-historical background of creoles. InPieter Muysken & Norval Smith (ed.), Pidgins and creoles: An introduction. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. 10.1075/cll.15.06are
    https://doi.org/10.1075/cll.15.06are [Google Scholar]
23. Bakker, Peter
    2017 Key concepts in the history of creole studies. InPeter Bakker, Finn Borchsenius, Carsten Levisen & Eeva Sippola (eds.), Creole studies — Phylogenetic approaches, –. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins. 10.1075/z.211.02bak
    https://doi.org/10.1075/z.211.02bak [Google Scholar]
24. Bakker, Peter, Finn Borchsenius, Carsten Levisen & Eeva Sippola
    2017 Creole studies — Phylogenetic approaches. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins. 10.1075/z.211
    https://doi.org/10.1075/z.211 [Google Scholar]
25. Bandeira, Manuele
    2017 Reconstrução fonológica e lexical do protocrioulo do Golfo da Guiné [Phonological and lexical reconstruction of the Proto-Creole of the Gulf of Guinea]. São Paulo: Universidade de São Paulo, Tese de Doutorado em Filologia e Língua Portuguesa.
    [Google Scholar]
26. Bandeira, Manuele & Gabriel Antunes de Araujo
    2022 A estratégia reflexiva no protocrioulo do Golfo da Guiné [The reflexive strategy in the Proto-Creole of the Gulf of Guinea]. DELTA: Documentação de Estudos em Lingüística Teórica e Aplicada(). –. 10.1590/1678‑460x202238247848
    https://doi.org/10.1590/1678-460x202238247848 [Google Scholar]
27. Bandeira, Manuele, Gabriel Antunes de Araujo & Thomas Finbow
    2021 The Gulf of Guinea proto-creole and its daughter languages: From liquid consonants to complex onsets and vowel lengthening. Journal of Language Contact(). –. 10.1163/19552629‑14030002
    https://doi.org/10.1163/19552629-14030002 [Google Scholar]
28. Bendor-Samuel, John
    1989 The Niger-Congo languages: A classification and description of Africa’s largest language family. Lanham, MD: University Press of America.
    [Google Scholar]
29. Bentley, William Holman
    1887 Dictionary and grammar of the Kongo language, as spoken at San Salvador, the ancient capital of the Old Kongo Empire, West Africa. London: Trübner & Co. Ltd.
    [Google Scholar]
30. Boersma, Paul & David Weenink
    2017 Praat: Doing phonetics by computer. www.praat.org/
31. Bouchard, Marie-Eve
    2019 Becoming monolingual: The impact of language ideologies on the loss of multilingualism on São Tomé Island. Languages(). . 10.3390/languages4030050
    https://doi.org/10.3390/languages4030050 [Google Scholar]
32. Caldeira, Arlindo Manuel
    2008 Tráfico de escravos e conflitualidade. O arquipélago de São Tomé e Príncipe e o reino do Congo durante o século XVI [Slave trade and conflict: the archipelago of São Tomé and Príncipe and the Kingdom of Kongo during the 16th century]. Revista Ciências e Letras. –.
    [Google Scholar]
33. Caldeira, Arlindo Manuel
    2013 Escravos e Traficantes no Império Português [Slaves and traffickers in the Portuguese empire]. Lisboa: Esfera do Livro.
    [Google Scholar]
34. Cardoso, Manuela
    2007 Cabo Verde e S. Tomé e Príncipe [Cape Verde and S. Tomé and Príncipe]. Porto: IPAD.
    [Google Scholar]
35. Casali, Roderic F.
    2020 Dekereke. https://casali.canil.ca/
36. Clemente, Felipe Costa & Gustavo Nishida
    2007 Características acústicas do tap em coda: dados do português de Curitiba e do espanhol de Buenos Aires [Acoustic characteristics of the coda tap: Data from Portuguese in Curitiba and Spanish in Buenos Aires]. Revista Letras. –. 10.5380/rel.v73i0.8625
    https://doi.org/10.5380/rel.v73i0.8625 [Google Scholar]
37. Cosme, Abigail Tiny
    2014 As Relações Filogenéticas entre os Crioulos do Golfo da Guiné [The phylogenetic relationships among the Creoles of the Gulf of Guinea]. Universidade de Lisboa.
    [Google Scholar]
38. Dockum, Rikker
    2019 The tonal comparative method: Tai tone in historical perspective. Yale UniversityPhD dissertation.
    [Google Scholar]
39. Elugbe, Ben
    1989 Comparative Edoid: Phonology and lexicon. University of Port Harcourt Press.
    [Google Scholar]
40. Elugbe, Ben & Augusta Phil Omamor
    1991 Nigerian Pidgin. Ibadan: Heinemann Educational Book (Nigeria) Plc.
    [Google Scholar]
41. Emovon, Joshua A.
    1979 A phonological study of Edo (Bini), with special reference to the verbal phrase. MPhil thesis. London: University of London. 10.1017/S000197200000560X
    https://doi.org/10.1017/S000197200000560X [Google Scholar]
42. Faraclas, Nicholas
    (ed.) 2012 Agency in the emergence of Creole languages: The role of women, renegades, and people of African and indigenous descent in the emergence of the colonial era creoles. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. 10.1075/cll.45
    https://doi.org/10.1075/cll.45 [Google Scholar]
43. Ferraz, Luiz
    1976 A origem e o desenvolvimento de quatro crioulos portugueses do Golfo da Guiné [The origin and development of four Portuguese creoles of the Gulf of Guinea]. Revista Brasileira de Linguística(). –.
    [Google Scholar]
44. Ferraz, Luiz
    1979 The Creole of São Tomé. African Studies. Johannesburg: Witwatersrand University Press. 10.1080/00020187808707508
    https://doi.org/10.1080/00020187808707508 [Google Scholar]
45. Garfield, Robert
    1992 A history of São Tomé Islands, 1470–1655: The key to Guinea. San Francisco: Mellen Research University Press.
    [Google Scholar]
46. Gehrmann, Ryan
    2022 Desegmentalization: Towards a common framework for the modeling of tonogenesis and Registrogenesis in Mainland Southeast Asia with case studies from Austroasiatic. The University of Edinburgh. https://www.academia.edu/download/85524608/Gehrmann_2022_Desegmentalization.pdf
    [Google Scholar]
47. Good, Jeff
    2004a Tone and accent in Saramaccan: Charting a deep split in the phonology of a language. Lingua. (). –. 10.1016/S0024‑3841(03)00062‑7
    https://doi.org/10.1016/S0024-3841(03)00062-7 [Google Scholar]
48. Good, Jeff
    2004b Split prosody and creole simplicity: The case of Saramaccan. Journal of Portuguese Linguistics(). –. 10.5334/jpl.9
    https://doi.org/10.5334/jpl.9 [Google Scholar]
49. Güldemann, Tom
    2008 The Macro-Sudan belt: towards identifying a linguistic area in northern sub-Saharan Africa. InBernd Heine & Derek Nurse (eds.), A linguistic geography of Africa, –. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
    [Google Scholar]
50. Güldemann, Tom
    (ed.) 2018 The languages and linguistics of Africa. Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton. 10.1515/9783110421668
    https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110421668 [Google Scholar]
51. Hagemeijer, Tjerk
    2009 Initial vowel agglutination in the Gulf of Guinea creoles. InEnoch O. Aboh & Norval Smith (eds.), Complex processes in new languages. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. 10.1075/cll.35.04hag
    https://doi.org/10.1075/cll.35.04hag [Google Scholar]
52. Hagemeijer, Tjerk
    2011 The Gulf of Guinea Creoles: Genetic and typological relations. Journal of Pidgin and Creole Languages(). –. 10.1075/jpcl.26.1.05hag
    https://doi.org/10.1075/jpcl.26.1.05hag [Google Scholar]
53. Hagemeijer, Tjerk
    2018 From creoles to Portuguese: Language shift in São Tomé and Príncipe. InLaura Álvarez López, Perpétua Gonçalves & Juanito Ornelas de Avelar (eds.), The Portuguese language continuum in Africa and Brazil, –. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins. 10.1075/ihll.20.08hag
    https://doi.org/10.1075/ihll.20.08hag [Google Scholar]
54. Hagemeijer, Tjerk, Philippe Maurer-Cecchini & Armando Zamora Segorbe
    2020 A grammar of Fa d’Ambô. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.
    [Google Scholar]
55. Hagemeijer, Tjerk & Jorge Rocha
    2019 Creole languages and genes: The case of São Tomé and Príncipe. Faits de Langues(). –. 10.1163/19589514‑04901011
    https://doi.org/10.1163/19589514-04901011 [Google Scholar]
56. Hall, Nancy
    2011 Vowel epenthesis. InMarc Van Oostendorp, Colin J. Ewen, Elizabeth V. Hume & Keren Rice (eds.), The Blackwell companion to phonology, –. Malden, MA & Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell. 10.1002/9781444335262.wbctp0067
    https://doi.org/10.1002/9781444335262.wbctp0067 [Google Scholar]
57. Hayes, Bruce
    1989 Compensatory lengthening in moraic phonology. Linguistic Inquiry(). –. 10.2307/4178626
    https://doi.org/10.2307/4178626 [Google Scholar]
58. Holm, John
    2004 An introduction to pidgins and creoles. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 10.1017/CBO9781139164153
    https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139164153 [Google Scholar]
59. Hyman, Larry M.
    1976 Phonologization. InAlphonse Juilland (ed.), Linguistic studies presented to Joseph H. Greenberg. Second volume: Phonology, –. Saratoga: Anma Libri.
    [Google Scholar]
60. Hyman, Larry M.
    2017 Bantu tone overview. UC Berkeley Phonology Lab Annual Report. 10.5070/P7131040751
    https://doi.org/10.5070/P7131040751 [Google Scholar]
61. Karlin, Robin
    2022 Finnish inserted vowels: A case of phonologized excrescence. Nordic Journal of Linguistics(). –. 10.1017/S033258652100007X
    https://doi.org/10.1017/S033258652100007X [Google Scholar]
62. Ladhams, John
    2003 The formation of the Portuguese plantation creoles. University of WestminsterPhD dissertation.
    [Google Scholar]
63. Ladhams, John
    2012 Article agglutination and the African contribution to the Portuguese-based Creoles. InAngela Bartens & Philip Baker (eds.), Black through white. African words and calques which survived slavery in creoles and transplanted European languages, –. London: Battlebridge.
    [Google Scholar]
64. Lipski, John M.
    2008 Spanish-based creoles in the Caribbean. InSilvia Kouwenberg & John Victor Singler (eds.), The handbook of pidgin and creole studies, –. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell. 10.1002/9781444305982.ch22
    https://doi.org/10.1002/9781444305982.ch22 [Google Scholar]
65. Lorenzino, Gerardo A.
    1998 The Angolar Creole Portuguese of São Tomé: Its grammar and sociolinguistic history. The City University of New YorkPhD dissertation.
    [Google Scholar]
66. Lorenzino, Gerardo A.
    2007 Linguistic, historical and ethnographic evidence on the formation of the Angolares, a Maroon-descendant community in São Tomé (West Africa). Portuguese Studies Review(). –.
    [Google Scholar]
67. Maurer, Philippe
    2008 A first step towards the analysis of tone in Santomense. InSusanne Michaelis (ed.), Roots of creole structures, –. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins. 10.1075/cll.33.13mau
    https://doi.org/10.1075/cll.33.13mau [Google Scholar]
68. Maurer, Philippe
    2009 Principense (Lung’Ie). London: Battlebridge Publications.
    [Google Scholar]
69. Nunes, Ariele Helena Holz
    2025 Uma abordagem areal das línguas crioulas afro-europeias do Atlântico [An areal approach to the Atlantic Afro-European creoles]. Florianópolis: Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, Tese de Doutorado.
    [Google Scholar]
70. Nunes, Ariele Helena Holz & Ana Lívia Agostinho
    2025a An acoustic analysis of implosives in Lung’Ie, Santome, and Angolar. Manuscript in preparation.
    [Google Scholar]
71. Nunes, Ariele Helena Holz & Ana Lívia Agostinho
    2025b Implosivas nas línguas crioulas do Golfo da Guiné: uma análise preliminar [Implosives in the Creole Languages of the Gulf of Guinea: A Preliminary Analysis]. Gradus: Revista Brasileira de Fonologia de Laboratório.
    [Google Scholar]
72. McWhorter, John H.
    2011 Tying up loose ends: The creole prototype after all. Diachronica. Amsterdam(). –. 10.1075/dia.28.1.04mcw
    https://doi.org/10.1075/dia.28.1.04mcw [Google Scholar]
73. Nishida, Gustavo
    2009 A natureza intervocálica do tap em PB [The intervocalic nature of the tap in BP]. Unpublished manuscript.
    [Google Scholar]
74. Nurse, Derek & Gérard Philippson
    (eds.) 2003 The Bantu languages. New York: Routledge.
    [Google Scholar]
75. Ohala, John J.
    1978 Production of tone. Unpublished manuscript.
    [Google Scholar]
76. Pittayaporn, Pittayawat
    2009 The phonology of Proto-Tai. Cornell University.
    [Google Scholar]
77. Schang, Emmanuel
    2000 L’émergence des créoles portugais du Golfe de Guinée. Presses universitaires du septentrion.
    [Google Scholar]
78. Seibert, Gerhard
    2004 Os angolares da Ilha de São Tome: náufragos, autóctones ou quilombolas? [The Angolares of São Tomé Island: Shipwreck survivors, natives, or maroons?] Textos De História(n°). .
    [Google Scholar]
79. Seibert, Gerhard
    2013 São Tomé and Príncipe: The first plantation economy in the tropics. InRobin Law, Suzanne Schwarz & Silke Strickrodt (eds.), Commercial agriculture, the slave trade and slavery in Atlantic Africa, –. Suffolk: Boydell & Brewer. 10.1515/9781782041788‑007
    https://doi.org/10.1515/9781782041788-007 [Google Scholar]
80. Seibert, Gerhard
    2014 Crioulização em Cabo Verde e São Tomé e Príncipe: divergências históricas e identitárias [Creolization in Cape Verde and São Tomé and Príncipe: historical and identity-related divergences]. Afro-Ásia(). –. 10.1590/S0002‑05912014000100002
    https://doi.org/10.1590/S0002-05912014000100002 [Google Scholar]
81. Seibert, Gerhard
    2015 Colonialismo em São Tomé e Príncipe: hierarquização, classificação e segregação da vida social [Colonialism in São Tomé and Príncipe: hierarchization, classification, and segregation of social life]. Anuário Antropológico (v.40 n.2). –. 10.4000/aa.1411
    https://doi.org/10.4000/aa.1411 [Google Scholar]
82. Silveira, Francine
    2007 Vogal epentética no Português Brasileiro: um estudo acústico em encontros consonantais [Epenthetic vowel in Brazilian Portuguese: an acoustic study of consonant clusters]. Unpublished manuscript.
    [Google Scholar]
83. Tomás, Gil, Luísa Seco, Susana Seixas, Paula Faustino, João Lavinha & Jorge Rocha
    2002 The peopling of São Tomé (Gulf of Guinea): Origins of slave settlers and admixture with the Portuguese. Human Biology(). –. 10.1353/hub.2002.0036
    https://doi.org/10.1353/hub.2002.0036 [Google Scholar]
84. Topintzi, Nina
    2006 A (not so) paradoxical instance of compensatory lengthening: Samothraki Greek and theoretical implications. Journal of Greek Linguistics. –. 10.1075/jgl.7.05top
    https://doi.org/10.1075/jgl.7.05top [Google Scholar]
85. Topintzi, Nina
    2010 Onsets: Suprasegmental and prosodic behaviour. (Cambridge Studies in Linguistics 125.) Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 10.1017/CBO9780511750700
    https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511750700 [Google Scholar]
86. Traill, Anthony & Luiz Ferraz
    1981 The interpretation of tone in Principense Creole. Studies in African Linguistics(). –.
    [Google Scholar]
87. Valkhoff, Marius F.
    1966 Studies in Portuguese and Creole. Johannesburg: Witwatersrand University Press.
    [Google Scholar]
88. Wetzels, W. Leo
    2007 Primary word stress in Brazilian Portuguese and the weight parameter. Journal of Portuguese Linguistics. Ubiquity Press(). –.
    [Google Scholar]
89. Xavier, Francisco da Silva
    2010 Fonologia segmental e supra-segmental do quimbundu [Segmental and suprasegmental phonology of Kimbundu]. Universidade de São PauloPhD dissertation.
    [Google Scholar]
90. Xu, Yi
    1999 F0 Peak delay: When, where, and why it occurs. InProceedings of The 14th International Congress of Phonetic Sciences, San Francisco, Aug. 1–7. 1999, –. San Francisco: Berkeley University of California.
    [Google Scholar]
91. Yakpo, Kofi
    2021 Creole prosodic systems are areal, not simple. Frontiers in Psychology. –. 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.690593
    https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.690593 [Google Scholar]
92. Zhang, Jie
    2001 The effects of duration and sonority on contour tone distribution. University of California, Los AngelesPhD dissertation.
    [Google Scholar]