1887
Volume 13, Issue 1
  • ISSN 2949-6861
  • E-ISSN: 2949-6845
USD
Buy:$35.00 + Taxes

Abstract

Abstract

This paper draws on data from a survey to examine how legal professionals in Canada use machine translation (MT) and artificial intelligence (AI) for translation purposes. Specifically, it investigates how they engage with such technologies to translate legal texts and considers the broader challenges arising from their use. The paper begins by clarifying key terms and reviewing the state of the art in two intersecting areas: the place of translation within the context of legal AI, and MT and AI for legal translation. It then outlines Canada’s unique linguistic and legal context, followed by a presentation of the survey methodology. The results are subsequently presented and discussed, followed by a few final reflections. Ultimately, the Canadian case highlights the need to place human expertise, linguistic equity, and context-sensitive policies at the heart of any responsible use of MT and AI for legal translation — especially when these technologies are employed by non-translators.

Loading

Article metrics loading...

/content/journals/10.1075/dt.25022.gir
2026-01-26
2026-02-14
Loading full text...

Full text loading...

References

  1. Abbott, Ryan
    2020The Reasonable Robot: Artificial Intelligence and the Law. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 10.1017/9781108631761
    https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108631761 [Google Scholar]
  2. Agatonović-Kuštrin, Snežana, and Rosemary A. Beresford
    2000 “Basic concepts of artificial neural network (ANN) modeling and its application in pharmaceutical research.” Journal of Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Analysis22 (5): 717–727. 10.1016/S0731‑7085(99)00272‑1
    https://doi.org/10.1016/S0731-7085(99)00272-1 [Google Scholar]
  3. Ait ElFqih, Khadija, and Johanna Monti
    2024 “Large Language Models as Legal Translators of Arabic Legislation: Do ChatGPT and Gemini Care for Context and Terminology?” InProceedings of The Second Arabic Natural Language Processing Conference, edited byNizar Habash, Houda Bouamor, Ramy Eskander, Nadi Tomeh, Ibrahim Abu Farha, Ahmed Abdelali, Samia Touileb, Injy Hamed, Yaser Onaizan, Bashar Alhafni, Wissam Antoun, Salam Khalifa, Hatem Haddad, Imed Zitouni, Badr AlKhamissi, Rawan Almatham, and Khalil Mrini, 111–122. Kerrville, TX: Association for Computational Linguistics. 10.18653/v1/2024.arabicnlp‑1.10
    https://doi.org/10.18653/v1/2024.arabicnlp-1.10 [Google Scholar]
  4. Asscher, Omri
    2025Machine translation and translation theory. London: Routledge. 10.4324/9781003607977
    https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003607977 [Google Scholar]
  5. Bajčić, Martina, and Dejana Golenko
    2024 “Applying Large Language Models in Legal Translation: The State-of-the-Art.” International Journal of Language & Law131: 171–196.
    [Google Scholar]
  6. Barreau du Québec
    Barreau du Québec 2024 “L’intelligence artificielle générative — Guide pratique pour une utilisation responsable.” https://www.barreau.qc.ca/media/bnddaqfd/guide-intelligence-artificielle-generative.pdf
  7. Baumgarten, Stefan, and Michael Tieber
    eds. 2025The Routledge Handbook of Translation Technology and Society. London: Routledge. 10.4324/9781003271314
    https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003271314 [Google Scholar]
  8. Beaudoin, Louis
    2009 “Legal Translation in Canada: the Genius of Legal Language(s).” InTranslation Issues in Language and Law, edited byFrances Olsen, Alexander Lorz, and Dieter Stein, 136–144. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. 10.1057/9780230233744_9
    https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230233744_9 [Google Scholar]
  9. Biel, Łucja
    2022 “Translating Legal Texts.” InThe Cambridge Handbook of Translation, edited byKirsten Malmkjær, 379–400. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 10.1017/9781108616119.020
    https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108616119.020 [Google Scholar]
  10. Bindels, Joop, Aletta G. Dorst, and Mark Pluymaekers
    2024 “Machine Translation in the Workplace: Deciding on the Whether, Why and How.” Global Advances in Business Communication11 (1): article 4. https://commons.emich.edu/gabc/vol11/iss1/4
    [Google Scholar]
  11. Bowker, Lynne
    2021 “Promoting Linguistic Diversity and Inclusion: Incorporating Machine Translation Literacy into Information Literacy Instruction for Undergraduate Students.” The International Journal of Information, Diversity, & Inclusion5 (3): 127–151. 10.33137/ijidi.v5i3.36159
    https://doi.org/10.33137/ijidi.v5i3.36159 [Google Scholar]
  12. 2025 “Risks for Lay Users in Machine Translation and Machine Translation Literacy.” InThe Social Impact of Automating Translation: an Ethics of Care Perspective on Machine Translation, edited byEsther Monzó-Nebot, and Vicenta Tasa-Fuster, 60–76. New York: Routledge.
    [Google Scholar]
  13. Briva-Iglesias, Vicent, João Lucas Cavalheiro Camargo, and Gokhan Dogru
    2024 “Large Language Models “ad referendum”: how good are they at machine translation in the legal domain?” MonTI161: 75–107. 10.6035/MonTI.2024.16.02
    https://doi.org/10.6035/MonTI.2024.16.02 [Google Scholar]
  14. Clément-Wilz, Laure, Agata de Laforcade, and Ilaria Cennamo
    2025 “Translation in the European Union: Navigating Technical and Legal Issues in the Light of Artificial Intelligence — Conclusions.” International Journal of Language & Law141: 240–255. 10.14762/jll.2025.240
    https://doi.org/10.14762/jll.2025.240 [Google Scholar]
  15. Constitution Act
    Constitution Act 1982 “The Constitution Acts 1867 to 1982.” Government of Canada. https://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/ConstRpt/index.html
    [Google Scholar]
  16. Contini, Francesco
    2024 “Unboxing Generative AI for the Legal Professions: Functions, Impacts and Governance.” International Journal for Court Administration15 (2): 1–22. 10.36745/ijca.604
    https://doi.org/10.36745/ijca.604 [Google Scholar]
  17. Dobrev, Dessislav
    2021Artificial Intelligence and the Law: A Comprehensive Guide for the Legal Profession, Academia and Society. Toronto: Thomson Reuters.
    [Google Scholar]
  18. Ehrensberger-Dow, Maureen, Alice Delorme Benites, and Caroline Lehr
    2023 “A new role for translators and trainers: MT literacy consultants.” The Interpreter and Translator Trainer17 (3): 393–411. 10.1080/1750399X.2023.2237328
    https://doi.org/10.1080/1750399X.2023.2237328 [Google Scholar]
  19. Giampieri, Patrizia
    2023Legal Machine Translation Explained: MT in Legal Contexts. Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing.
    [Google Scholar]
  20. 2024 “The use of AI in the translation of legal documents: A critical analysis.” trans-kom17 (2): 343–358.
    [Google Scholar]
  21. Girard, Marie-Hélène
    2019 “Expression, traduction et interprétation du droit pénal international : état des lieux et analyse du cas de genocide.” PhD dissertation. Université de Genève.
    [Google Scholar]
  22. 2023 “Portrait des professionnels, des professions et de l’industrie du langage du droit au Canada.” Meta68 (2): 309–340. 10.7202/1109340ar
    https://doi.org/10.7202/1109340ar [Google Scholar]
  23. Government of Canada
    Government of Canada 2025 “Provinces and territories.” Government of Canada. https://www.canada.ca/en/intergovernmental-affairs/services/provinces-territories.html
    [Google Scholar]
  24. Greco, Candida M., and Andrea Tagarelli
    2023 “Bringing order into the realm of Transformer-based language models for artificial intelligence and law.” Artificial Intelligence and Law321: 863–1010. 10.1007/s10506‑023‑09374‑7
    https://doi.org/10.1007/s10506-023-09374-7 [Google Scholar]
  25. Greńczuka, Andrzej, Iwona Chomiak-Orsaa, and Katarzyna Tryczyńskab
    2024 “AI-Supported Translation Tools for Legal Texts: A Comparative Analysis.” Procedia Computer Science2461: 5545–5554. 10.1016/j.procs.2024.09.707
    https://doi.org/10.1016/j.procs.2024.09.707 [Google Scholar]
  26. Hovy, Eduard, Margaret King, and Andrei Popescu-Belis
    2002 “Principles of Context-Based Machine Translation Evaluation.” Machine Translation171: 43–75. 10.1023/A:1025510524115
    https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1025510524115 [Google Scholar]
  27. Hudon, Marie-Ève
    2020 “Bilingualism in Canada’s Court System: The Role of the Federal Government.” Library of Parliament. https://lop.parl.ca/sites/PublicWebsite/default/en_CA/ResearchPublications/201733E#
    [Google Scholar]
  28. Hutchins, John
    2010 “Machine Translation: A Concise History.” Journal of Translation Studies13 (1–2): 29–70.
    [Google Scholar]
  29. Jakobson, Roman
    1959 “On Linguistic Aspects of Translation.” InOn Translation, edited byReuben Arthur Brower, 232–239. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
    [Google Scholar]
  30. Jiménez-Crespo, Miguel A.
    2020 “Technology and non-professional translation.” InThe Routledge Handbook of Translation and Technology, edited byMinako O’Hagan, 239–254. London: Routledge.
    [Google Scholar]
  31. Kenny, Dorothy
    2022 “Human and machine translation.” InMachine translation for everyone: Empowering users in the age of artificial intelligence, edited byDorothy Kenny, 23–49. Berlin: Language Science Press. 10.5281/zenodo.6759976
    https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.6759976 [Google Scholar]
  32. Killman, Jeffrey
    2024a “Machine Translation in the Legal Context: A Spanish-to-English Comparative Product Study of Statistical vs. Neural MT Output.” InTranslation, Interpreting and Technological Change: Innovations in Research, Practice and Training, edited byMarion Winters, Sharon Deane-Cox, and Ursula Böser, 136–156. London: Bloomsbury Academic. 10.5040/9781350212978.0015
    https://doi.org/10.5040/9781350212978.0015 [Google Scholar]
  33. 2024b “Machine translation literacy in the legal translation context: a SWOT analysis perspective.” The Interpreter and Translator Trainer18 (2): 271–289. 10.1080/1750399X.2024.2344282
    https://doi.org/10.1080/1750399X.2024.2344282 [Google Scholar]
  34. Koskinen, Kaisa
    2025 “Translating at work. Identifying and contextualizing paraprofessional translatoriality in organizations.” InField Research on Translation and Interpreting, edited byRegina Rogl, Daniela Schlager, and Hanna Risku, 36–54. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. 10.1075/btl.165.01kos
    https://doi.org/10.1075/btl.165.01kos [Google Scholar]
  35. Lavoie, Judith
    2003 “Le bilinguisme législatif et la place de la traduction.” TTR16 (1): 121–139. 10.7202/008559ar
    https://doi.org/10.7202/008559ar [Google Scholar]
  36. Legaltech Hub
    Legaltech Hub 2025 “About Legaltech Hub.” Legaltech Hub. https://www.legaltechnologyhub.com/about/
    [Google Scholar]
  37. Marwala, Tshilidzi, and Letlhokwa George Mpedi
    2024Artificial Intelligence and the Law. Singapore: Palgrave Macmillan. 10.1007/978‑981‑97‑2827‑5
    https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-97-2827-5 [Google Scholar]
  38. McLaren, Karine
    2012 “Bilinguisme législatif : regard sur l’interprétation et la rédaction des lois bilingues au Canada.” Ottawa Law Review45 (1): 21–57.
    [Google Scholar]
  39. Moorkens, Joss, and Ana Guerberof Arenas
    2024 “Artificial intelligence, automation and the language industry.” InHandbook of the Language Industry. Contexts, Resources and Profiles, edited byGary Massey, Maureen Ehrensberger-Dow, and Erik Angelone, 71–97. Berlin: de Gruyter. 10.1515/9783110716047‑005
    https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110716047-005 [Google Scholar]
  40. Moorkens, Joss, Andy Way, and Séamus Lankford
    2025Automating Translation. London: Routledge. 10.4324/9781003381280
    https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003381280 [Google Scholar]
  41. Nunes Vieira, Lucas, Carol O’Sullivan, Xiaochun Zhang, and Minako O’Hagan
    2023 “Machine translation in society: insights from UK users.” Language Resources and Evaluation571: 893–914. 10.1007/s10579‑022‑09589‑1
    https://doi.org/10.1007/s10579-022-09589-1 [Google Scholar]
  42. Nunes Vieira, Lucas, Minako O’Hagan, and Carol O’Sullivan
    2021 “Understanding the societal impacts of machine translation: a critical review of the literature on medical and legal use cases.” Information, Communication & Society24 (11): 1515–1532. 10.1080/1369118X.2020.1776370
    https://doi.org/10.1080/1369118X.2020.1776370 [Google Scholar]
  43. Nunes Vieira, Lucas
    2023 “The many guises of machine translation: A postphenomenology perspective.” Digital Translation10 (1): 16–36. 10.1075/dt.00002.nun
    https://doi.org/10.1075/dt.00002.nun [Google Scholar]
  44. Nurminen, Mary, and Niko Papula
    2018 “Gist MT Users: A Snapshot of the Use and Users of One Online MT Tool.” InProceedings of the 21st Annual Conference of the European Association for Machine Translation, edited byJuan Antonio Pérez-Ortiz, Felipe Sánchez-Martínez, Miquel Esplà-Gomis, Maja Popović, Celia Rico, André Martins, Joachim Van den Bogaert, and Mikel L. Forcada, 199–208. Alicante: Universitat d’Alacant.
    [Google Scholar]
  45. Nurminen, Mary
    2021 “Investigating the Influence of Context in the Use and Reception of Raw Machine Translation.” PhD dissertation. Tampere University.
    [Google Scholar]
  46. 2025a “Machine translation in non-translation workplaces.” InThe Routledge Handbook of Translation Technology and Society, edited byStefan Baumgarten, and Michael Tieber, 423–435. London: Routledge. 10.4324/9781003271314‑37
    https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003271314-37 [Google Scholar]
  47. 2025b “Is machine translation gisting translation?” Translation Spaces. 10.1075/ts.24048.nur
    https://doi.org/10.1075/ts.24048.nur [Google Scholar]
  48. Ogunde, Fife
    2024a “Generative AI in American and Canadian courts: a ‘training’ approach to regulation.” Law, Innovation and Technology16 (2): 715–740. 10.1080/17579961.2024.2392930
    https://doi.org/10.1080/17579961.2024.2392930 [Google Scholar]
  49. 2024b “Navigating the legal landscape: large language models and the hesitancy of legal professionals.” International Journal of the Legal Profession31 (3): 311–322. 10.1080/09695958.2024.2379794
    https://doi.org/10.1080/09695958.2024.2379794 [Google Scholar]
  50. Orrego-Carmona, David
    2022 “Machine translation in everyone’s hands — Adoption and changes among general users of MT.” Revista Tradumàtica201: 322–339. 10.5565/rev/tradumatica.324
    https://doi.org/10.5565/rev/tradumatica.324 [Google Scholar]
  51. Padiu, Bogdan, Radu Iacob, Traian Rebedea, and Mihai Dascalu
    2024 “To What Extent Have LLMs Reshaped the Legal Domain So Far? A Scoping Literature Review.” Information15 (11): 1–25. 10.3390/info15110662
    https://doi.org/10.3390/info15110662 [Google Scholar]
  52. Prieto Ramos, Fernando
    2024 “Patterns of human-machine interaction in legal and institutional translation: from hype to fact.” Polissema — Revista de Letras do ISCAP1 (24): 1–27. 10.34630/polissema.vi.5750
    https://doi.org/10.34630/polissema.vi.5750 [Google Scholar]
  53. 2025 “Embracing New Translation Technologies at International Organizations: Translators’ Perceptions of Machine Translation and its Impact on Institutional Translation.” International Journal of Language & Law141: 1–29. 10.14762/jll.2025.001
    https://doi.org/10.14762/jll.2025.001 [Google Scholar]
  54. Quinci, Carla, and Gianluca Pontrandolfo
    2023 “Testing neural machine translation against different levels of specialisation: An exploratory investigation across legal genres and languages.” trans-kom16 (1): 174–209.
    [Google Scholar]
  55. Quinci, Carla
    2024 “The impact of machine translation on the development of info-mining and thematic competences in legal translation trainees: a focus on time and external resources.” The Interpreter and Translator Trainer18 (2): 290–312. 10.1080/1750399X.2024.2344285
    https://doi.org/10.1080/1750399X.2024.2344285 [Google Scholar]
  56. Reevely, David, and Murad Hemmadi
    2025 “Ottawa rushes to build its own AI translator as government use of free tools soars.” The Logic: Canada’s Business and Tech Newsroom. https://thelogic.co/news/exclusive/ottawa-rushes-to-build-its-own-ai-translator-as-government-use-of-free-tools-soars/
    [Google Scholar]
  57. Salyzyn, Amy
    2021 “AI and Legal Ethics.” InArtificial Intelligence and the Law in Canada, edited byFlorian Martin-Bariteau and Teresa Scassa, 1–23. Toronto: LexisNexis Canada.
    [Google Scholar]
  58. 2025 “Canadian Lawyers and Generative AI: Some Suggested Starting Points for the Overwhelmed.” Slaw: Canada’s online legal magazine. https://www.slaw.ca/2025/04/25/canadian-lawyers-and-generative-ai-some-suggested-starting-points-for-the-overwhelmed/
    [Google Scholar]
  59. Šarčević, Susan
    2012 “Challenges To The Legal Translator.” InThe Oxford Handbook of Language and Law, edited byLawrence M. Solan and Peter M. Tiersma, 187–199. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199572120.013.0014
    https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199572120.013.0014 [Google Scholar]
  60. Scott, Juliette
    2017 “Legal Translation Training — A Way Forward for Aspiring Lawyers in a Clogged Job Market?” Tilburg Law Review221: 215–235. 10.1163/22112596‑02201010
    https://doi.org/10.1163/22112596-02201010 [Google Scholar]
  61. Seresi, Márta, Maarit Koponen, Antonio Pareja, Lynne Bowker, Alice Delorme Benites, Mehmet Şahin, Anna Setkovicz-Rysza, and Dorothée Behr
    2022 “LITHME Wg7’s Survey on Machine Translation Use Habits and Practices”. figshare. 10.6084/m9.figshare.21165775.v1
    https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.21165775.v1 [Google Scholar]
  62. Setkowicz-Ryszka, Anna
    2024 “How much do Polish legal practitioners and academics trust generic machine translation engines to allow them to communicate in English with clients and peers?” In‘Unstated’ mediation: On the ethical aspects of non-professional interpreting and translation, edited byGeorgios Floros, Konstantinos Kritsis, and Rafaella Athanasiadi, 81–96. Nicosia: University of Cyprus.
    [Google Scholar]
  63. Siino, Marco, Mariana Falco, Daniele Croce, and Paolo Rosso
    2025 “Exploring LLMs Applications in Law: A Literature Review on Current Legal NLP Approaches.” IEEE Access131: 18253–18276. 10.1109/ACCESS.2025.3533217
    https://doi.org/10.1109/ACCESS.2025.3533217 [Google Scholar]
  64. Soriano Barabino, Guadalupe
    2024 “Translation and law.” InThe Routledge Handbook of Translation and Sociology, edited bySergey Tyulenev and Wenyan Luo, 229–244. London: Routledge. 10.4324/9781003340843‑19
    https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003340843-19 [Google Scholar]
  65. Sun, Sanjun, Kanglong Liu, and Riccardo Moratto
    2025 “Introduction. Navigating the Paradigm Shift–Translation Studies in the Age of AI.” InTranslation Studies in the Age of Artificial Intelligence, edited bySanjun Sun, Kanglong Liu, and Riccardo Moratto, 1–17. London: Routledge. 10.4324/9781003482369‑1
    https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003482369-1 [Google Scholar]
  66. Vigier-Moreno, Francisco J., and Pérez-Macías, Lorena
    2022 “Assessing neural machine translation of court documents: A case study on the translation of a Spanish remand order into English.” Revista de Llengua i Dret781: 73–91. 10.2436/rld.i78.2022.3691
    https://doi.org/10.2436/rld.i78.2022.3691 [Google Scholar]
  67. Xueting, Liu, and Li Chengze
    2023 “Artificial Intelligence and Translation.” InRoutledge Encyclopedia of Translation Technology, edited byChan Sin-wai, 280–302. 2nd. London: Routledge.
    [Google Scholar]
/content/journals/10.1075/dt.25022.gir
Loading
This is a required field
Please enter a valid email address
Approval was successful
Invalid data
An Error Occurred
Approval was partially successful, following selected items could not be processed due to error