1887
  1. Home
  2. e-Journals
  3. ITL - International Journal of Applied Linguistics
  4. Online First Articles
  5. Online First Article
image of Learning events and sequences: What do learners do in collaborative datadriven learning?
USD
Buy:$35.00 + Taxes

Abstract

While frameworks like Illustration-Interaction-Intervention-Induction often guide data-driven learning (DDL), few studies examine whether they reflect actual learner behaviour or a prescriptive ideal. This paper analysed field recordings and worksheets from 61 participants using grounded theory, identifying ‘learning events’ (i.e., what learners do) and ‘learning sequences’ (i.e., when and why they do so), grounded in constructivism, sociocultural theory, and the Noticing Hypothesis. These macro- and micro-level insights reveal DDL as a non-linear, iterative process shaped by data observation, repeated rule extraction and testing. The findings inform DDL studies by highlighting the importance of considering non-linearity in task design and providing regular scaffolding. Beyond DDL, the paper contributes to a broader understanding of collaborative, inductive learning and offers implications for task design across educational contexts.

© John Benjamins Publishing Company
Loading

Article metrics loading...

/content/journals/10.1075/itl.25011.loo
2026-05-08
2026-06-07

  • From This Site

    /content/journals/10.1075/itl.25011.loo
    dcterms_title,dcterms_subject,pub_keyword
    -contentType:Journal -contentType:Contributor -contentType:Concept -contentType:Institution
    10
    5
Loading full text...

Full text loading...

References

  1. ATILF, LIF, Loria, CLLE, ICAR, & Lattice
    ATILF, LIF, Loria, CLLE, ICAR, & Lattice (2024) Corpus d’Étude pour le Français Contemporain (CEFC) (Version 1.5) [Dataset]. https://www.ortolang.fr/market/corpora/cefc-orfeo/v1.5
     [Google Scholar]
  2. Alonso-Ramos, M. & García Salido, M.
    (2019) Testing the use of a collocation retrieval tool without prior training by learners of Spanish. International Journal of Lexicography, (), –. 10.1093/ijl/ecz016
     https://doi.org/10.1093/ijl/ecz016 [Google Scholar]
  3. Aston, G.
    (2001) Learning with corpora. Athelstan.
     [Google Scholar]
  4. Boulton, A.
    (2009) Data-driven learning: Reasonable fears and rational reassurance. Indian Journal of Applied Linguistics, (), –.
     [Google Scholar]
  5. Boulton, A., & Cobb, T.
    (2017) Corpus use in language learning: A meta-analysis. Language Learning, (), –. 10.1111/lang.12224
     https://doi.org/10.1111/lang.12224 [Google Scholar]
  6. Boulton, A., & Vyatkina, N.
    (2021) Thirty years of data-driven learning: Taking stock and charting new directions over time. Language Learning & Technology, (), –. 10.64152/10125/73450
     https://doi.org/10.64152/10125/73450 [Google Scholar]
  7. (2024) Expanding methodological approaches in DDL research. TESOL Quarterly, (), –. 10.1002/tesq.3269
     https://doi.org/10.1002/tesq.3269 [Google Scholar]
  8. Bowen, G. A.
    (2006) Grounded theory and sensitizing concepts. International Journal of Qualitative Methods, , –. 10.1177/160940690600500304
     https://doi.org/10.1177/160940690600500304 [Google Scholar]
  9. Carter, R., & McCarthy, M.
    (1995) Grammar and the spoken language. Applied Linguistics, (), –. 10.1093/applin/16.2.141
     https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/16.2.141 [Google Scholar]
  10. Cenoz, J., & Gorter, D.
    (2021) Pedagogical translanguaging. Cambridge University Press. 10.1017/9781009029384
     https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009029384 [Google Scholar]
  11. Chau, M. H.
    (2003) Contextualizing language learning: The role of a topic- and genre-specific pedagogic corpus. TESL Reporter, (), –.
     [Google Scholar]
  12. Chujo, K., & Oghigian, K.
    (2012) DDL for EFL beginners: A report on student gains and views on paper-based concordancing and the role of L1. InJ. Thomas & A. Boulton (Eds.), Input, process and product: Developments in teaching and language corpora (pp.–). Masaryk University Press.
     [Google Scholar]
  13. Chujo, K., Laurence, A., & Oghigian, K.
    (2009) DDL for the EFL classroom: Effective uses of a Japanese-English parallel corpus and the development of a learner-friendly, online parallel concordancer. InM. Mahlberg, V. González-Díaz, & C. Smith (Eds.), Proceedings of the 5th Corpus Linguistics Conference. ucrel.lancs.ac.uk/publications/cl2009
     [Google Scholar]
  14. Cobb, T.
    (2024) Constructivism in language learning and applied linguistics. Reference module in social sciences. 10.1016/B978‑0‑323‑95504‑1.00020‑X
     https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-95504-1.00020-X [Google Scholar]
  15. Crosthwaite, P., & Boulton, A.
    (2022) DDL is dead? Long live DDL! Expanding the boundaries of data-driven learning. InH. Tyne, M. Bilger, L. Buscail, M. Leray, N. Curry, & C. Pérez-Sabater (Eds.), Discovering language: Learning and affordance. Peter Lang.
     [Google Scholar]
  16. Crosthwaite, P., Wong, L. & Cheung, J.
    (2019) Characterising postgraduate students’ corpus query and usage patterns for disciplinary data-driven learning. ReCALL, (), –. 10.1017/S0958344019000077
     https://doi.org/10.1017/S0958344019000077 [Google Scholar]
  17. ELAN (Version 6.9) [Computer software]
    ELAN (Version 6.9) [Computer software] (2024) Max Planck Institute for Psycholinguistics, The Language Archive. https://archive.mpi.nl/tla/elan
  18. Ellis, N. C.
    (2002) Frequency effects in language processing: A review with implications for theories of implicit and explicit language acquisition. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, (), –. 10.1017/S0272263102002024
     https://doi.org/10.1017/S0272263102002024 [Google Scholar]
  19. Flowerdew, L.
    (2009) Applying corpus linguistics to pedagogy: A critical evaluation. International Journal of Corpus Linguistics, (), –. 10.1075/ijcl.14.3.05flo
     https://doi.org/10.1075/ijcl.14.3.05flo [Google Scholar]
  20. (2015) Data-driven learning and language learning theories: Whither the twain shall meet. InA. Leńko-Szymańska & A. Boulton (Eds.), Multiple affordances of language corpora for data-driven learning (pp.–). John Benjamins Publishing Company. 10.1075/scl.69.02flo
     https://doi.org/10.1075/scl.69.02flo [Google Scholar]
  21. Friedman, D.
    (2012) How to collect and analyze qualitative data. InA. Mackey & S. M. Gass (Eds.), Research methods in second language acquisition: A practical guide (pp.–). Wiley-Blackwell. 10.1002/9781444347340.ch10
     https://doi.org/10.1002/9781444347340.ch10 [Google Scholar]
  22. Gabrielatos, C.
    (2005) Corpora and language teaching: Just a fling or wedding bells?Teaching English as a Second or Foreign Language, (), –.
     [Google Scholar]
  23. Goussakova, J.
    (2022) Data-driven learning in a low-level language classroom. InE. Nemtchinova (Ed.), Enhancing beginner-level foreign language education for adult learners: Language instruction, intercultural competence, technology, and assessment (pp.–). Routledge. 10.4324/9781003058441‑15
     https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003058441-15 [Google Scholar]
  24. Indrarathne, B., Ratajczak, M., & Kormos, J.
    (2018) Modelling changes in the cognitive processing of grammar in implicit and explicit learning conditions : Insights from an eye-tracking study. Language Learning, (), –. 10.1111/lang.12290
     https://doi.org/10.1111/lang.12290 [Google Scholar]
  25. Jablonkai, R. R.
    (2024) Transforming language teaching with corpora — bridging research and practice. InP. Crosthwaite (Ed.), Corpora for language learning: Bridging the research–practice divide (pp.–). Routledge. 10.4324/9781003413301‑8
     https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003413301-8 [Google Scholar]
  26. Johns, T.
    (1991) Should you be persuaded: Two examples of data-driven learning. InT. Johns & P. King (Eds.), Classroom concordancing. English Language Research Journal.
     [Google Scholar]
  27. (1993) Data-driven learning: An update. TELL & CALL, , –.
     [Google Scholar]
  28. (1997) Contexts: The background, development and trialling of a concordance-based CALL program. InA. Wichmann, S. Fligelstone, T. McEnery, & G. Knowles (Eds.), Teaching and language corpora. Addison Wesley Longman. 10.4324/9781315842677‑9
     https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315842677-9 [Google Scholar]
  29. Kartchava, E. & Nassaji, H.
    (2019) The role of task repetition and learner self-assessment in technology-mediated task performance. ITL — International Journal of Applied Linguistics, (), –. 10.1075/itl.19013.kar
     https://doi.org/10.1075/itl.19013.kar [Google Scholar]
  30. Kennedy, C., & Miceli, T.
    (2010) Corpus-assisted creative writing: Introducing intermediate Italian learners to a corpus as a reference resource. Language Learning & Technology, (), –. 10.64152/10125/44201
     https://doi.org/10.64152/10125/44201 [Google Scholar]
  31. (2017) Cultivating effective corpus use by language learners. Computer Assisted Language Learning, (), –. 10.1080/09588221.2016.1264427
     https://doi.org/10.1080/09588221.2016.1264427 [Google Scholar]
  32. Labov, W.
    (1972) Sociolinguistic patterns. University of Pennsylvania Press.
     [Google Scholar]
  33. Lai, S.-L. & Chang, J. S.
    (2020) Toward a pattern-based referencing tool : Learner interactions and perceptions. ReCALL, (), –. 10.1017/S0958344020000105
     https://doi.org/10.1017/S0958344020000105 [Google Scholar]
  34. Lantolf, J. P., & Poehner, M. E.
    (2014) Sociocultural theory and the pedagogical imperative in L2 education. Vygotskian praxis and the research/practice divide. Routledge. 10.4324/9780203813850
     https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203813850 [Google Scholar]
  35. Lee, P. & Lin, H.
    (2019) The effect of the inductive and deductive data-driven learning (DDL) on vocabulary acquisition and retention. System, , –. 10.1016/j.system.2018.12.011
     https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2018.12.011 [Google Scholar]
  36. Lee, H., Warschauer, M., & Lee, J. H.
    (2019) The effects of corpus use on second language vocabulary learning: A multilevel meta-analysis. Applied Linguistics, (), –. 10.1093/applin/amy012
     https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/amy012 [Google Scholar]
  37. (2020) Towards the establishment of a data-driven learning model: Role of learner factors in corpus-based second language vocabulary learning. The Modern Language Journal, (), –. 10.1111/modl.12634
     https://doi.org/10.1111/modl.12634 [Google Scholar]
  38. Liou, H.-C.
    (2019) Learner concordancing for EFL college writing accuracy. English Teaching & Learning, , –. 10.1007/s42321‑019‑00022‑5
     https://doi.org/10.1007/s42321-019-00022-5 [Google Scholar]
  39. Liu, T., & Chen, M.
    (2024) An investigation into learners’ cognitive processes in data-driven learning: Case studies of six learners of Chinese. Chinese Journal of Applied Linguistics, (), –. 10.1515/CJAL‑2023‑0404
     https://doi.org/10.1515/CJAL-2023-0404 [Google Scholar]
  40. Looi, J., Boulton, A., Hassan, R. & Riget, P.N.
    (2025) Data-driven learning: A linguistically authentic complement to coursebooks for foreign language learners. International Journal of Applied Linguistics, (), –. 10.1111/ijal.12753
     https://doi.org/10.1111/ijal.12753 [Google Scholar]
  41. Luo, Q., & Zhou, J.
    (2017) Data-driven learning in second language writing class: A survey of empirical studies. International Journal of Emerging Technologies in Learning, (), –. 10.3991/ijet.v12i03.6523
     https://doi.org/10.3991/ijet.v12i03.6523 [Google Scholar]
  42. Mackey, A.
    (2006) Feedback, noticing and instructed second language learning. Applied Linguistics, (), –. 10.1093/applin/ami051
     https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/ami051 [Google Scholar]
  43. Nassaji, H., & Tian, J.
    (2018) Constructivism. InM. Zeraatpishe, A. Faravani, H. R. Kargozari, & M. Azarnoosh (Eds.), Issues in applying SLA theories toward reflective and effective teaching (pp.–). Brill. 10.1163/9789004380882_003
     https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004380882_003 [Google Scholar]
  44. Ngo, T. T.-N., & Chen, H. H.-J.
    (2024) The effectiveness of corpus use in ESL/EFL writing: A meta-analysis. Language Teaching Research. 10.1177/13621688241260183
     https://doi.org/10.1177/13621688241260183 [Google Scholar]
  45. O’Keeffe, A.
    (2021) Data-driven learning: A call for a broader research gaze. Language Learning, (), –. 10.1017/S0261444820000245
     https://doi.org/10.1017/S0261444820000245 [Google Scholar]
  46. O’Sullivan, Í.
    (2007) Enhancing a process-oriented approach to literacy and language learning: The role of corpus consultation literacy. ReCALL, (), –. 10.1017/S095834400700033X
     https://doi.org/10.1017/S095834400700033X [Google Scholar]
  47. Pan, Z.
    (2024) EFL learners’ use of data-driven learning and their attitudes in the improvement of English-speaking skills. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research, (), –. 10.26803/ijlter.23.8.6
     https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.23.8.6 [Google Scholar]
  48. Poehner, M. E., & Lu, X.
    (2024) Sociocultural theory and corpus-based English language teaching. TESOL Quarterly, (), –. 10.1002/tesq.3282
     https://doi.org/10.1002/tesq.3282 [Google Scholar]
  49. Révész, A.
    (2012) Coding second language data validly and reliably. InA. Mackey & S. M. Gass (Eds.), Research methods in second language acquisition: A practical guide (pp.–). Wiley-Blackwell. 10.1002/9781444347340.ch11
     https://doi.org/10.1002/9781444347340.ch11 [Google Scholar]
  50. Saeedakhtar, A., Bagerin, M., & Abdi, R.
    (2020) The effect of hands-on and hands-off data-driven leanring on low-intermediate learners’ verb-preposition collocations. System, , . 10.1016/j.system.2020.102268
     https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2020.102268 [Google Scholar]
  51. Schmidt, R.
    (1990) The role of consciousness in second language learning. Applied Linguistics, (), –. 10.1093/applin/11.2.129
     https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/11.2.129 [Google Scholar]
  52. (2001) Attention. InP. Robinson (Ed.), Cognition and second language instruction (pp.–). Cambridge University Press. 10.1017/CBO9781139524780.003
     https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139524780.003 [Google Scholar]
  53. (2012) Attention, awareness, and individual differences in language learning. InW. Chan, K. Chin, S. Bhatt, & I. Walker (Eds.), Perspectives on individual characteristics and foreign language education (pp.–). De Gruyter Mouton. 10.1515/9781614510932.27
     https://doi.org/10.1515/9781614510932.27 [Google Scholar]
  54. Schnedecker, C.
    (2002) Présentation : Les adjectifs « inclassables », des adjectifs du troisième type ?Langue Française, , –.
     [Google Scholar]
  55. Sinclair, J. M. H.
    (2003) Reading concordances: An introduction. Pearson Education Limited.
     [Google Scholar]
  56. Sun, Y. C.
    (2003) Learning process, strategies and web-based concordancers: A case study. British Journal of Educational Technology, (), –. 10.1046/j.0007‑1013.2003.00353.x
     https://doi.org/10.1046/j.0007-1013.2003.00353.x [Google Scholar]
  57. Swain, M.
    (2006) Languaging, agency and collaboration in advanced second language proficiency. InH. Byrnes (Ed.), Advanced language learning: The contribution of Halliday and Vygotsky (pp.–). Continuum.
     [Google Scholar]
  58. Thuilier, J.
    (2012) Contraintes préférentielles et ordre des mots en français [Doctoral dissertation, Université Paris-Diderot]. HAL Theses. https://theses.hal.science/tel-00781228v1
     [Google Scholar]
  59. Ueno, S., & Takeuchi, O.
    (2023) Effective corpus use in second language learning: A meta-analytic approach. Applied Corpus Linguistics, (), . 10.1016/j.acorp.2023.100076
     https://doi.org/10.1016/j.acorp.2023.100076 [Google Scholar]
  60. Vygotsky, L. S.
    (1934/1986) Thought and language. MIT Press.
     [Google Scholar]
  61. (1978) Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. Harvard University Press. 10.2307/j.ctvjf9vz4
     https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctvjf9vz4 [Google Scholar]
  62. Wu, Y.-J. A.
    (2021) Discovering collocations via data-driven learning in L2 writing. Language Learning & Technology, (), –. 10.64152/10125/73440
     https://doi.org/10.64152/10125/73440 [Google Scholar]
  63. Zare, J., Noughabi, M. A., & Al-Issa, A.
    (2024) The impact of data-driven learning from form-focused tasks on learners’ task engagement: An intervention study. ReCALL, (), –. 10.1017/S0958344024000120
     https://doi.org/10.1017/S0958344024000120 [Google Scholar]
/content/journals/10.1075/itl.25011.loo
Loading
Learning events and sequences: What do learners do in collaborative datadriven learning?
John Benjamins ; https://doi.org/10.1075/itl.25011.loo
/content/journals/10.1075/itl.25011.loo
/content/journals/10.1075/itl.25011.loo
Loading

Data & Media loading...

  • Article Type: Research Article
Keywords: data-driven learning ; languaging ; collaborative learning ; scaffolding ; inductive learning

Most Cited

This is a required field
Please enter a valid email address
Approval was successful
Invalid data
An Error Occurred
Approval was partially successful, following selected items could not be processed due to error