1887
  1. Home
  2. e-Journals
  3. ITL - International Journal of Applied Linguistics
  4. Online First Articles
  5. Online First Article
image of Assessing the relationship between extramural English and L2 writing
USD
Buy:$35.00 + Taxes

Abstract

Abstract

This study examines the relationship between engagement in extramural English (EE) activities and second language (L2) writing among 96 high school learners of English. Participants completed an EE questionnaire and a writing task. Their texts were analyzed using measures of syntactic and lexical complexity, accuracy, and fluency. Watching audiovisual content with English captions or without subtitles showed the strongest positive correlations with multiple writing metrics, including fluency, complexity, and grammatical and lexical accuracy. Listening to music and gaming were linked to fluency and lexical diversity, respectively. Reading, writing, speaking face-to-face, and listening to non-musical audio showed weaker but significant correlations. No significant relationships were found for watching with L1 subtitles or speaking online. Findings highlight the potential of audiovisual EE input to support L2 writing development.

© John Benjamins Publishing Company
Loading

Article metrics loading...

/content/journals/10.1075/itl.25022.fer
2026-03-17
2026-04-19

  • From This Site

    /content/journals/10.1075/itl.25022.fer
    dcterms_title,dcterms_subject,pub_keyword
    -contentType:Journal -contentType:Contributor -contentType:Concept -contentType:Institution
    10
    5
Loading full text...

Full text loading...

References

  1. Allen, D.
    (Ed.) (2001) Quick Oxford Placement Test. Oxford University Press.
     [Google Scholar]
  2. Alonso, R.
    (2023) Out-of-school contact with L2 English across four educational levels. Porta Linguarum: An International Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Learning, , –. 10.30827/portalin.vi40.25311
     https://doi.org/10.30827/portalin.vi40.25311 [Google Scholar]
  3. Alonso, R., & Fernández-Dobao, A.
    (2025) Adolescents’ informal exposure to English as a second language in the context of Galicia. ITL International Journal of Applied Linguistics, (), –. 10.1075/itl.23010.alo
     https://doi.org/10.1075/itl.23010.alo [Google Scholar]
  4. Arndt, H. L.
    (2019) Informal Second Language Learning: The Role of Engagement, Proficiency, Attitudes, and Motivation [Doctoral dissertation, University of Oxford]. https://ora.ox.ac.uk/objects/uuid:c579077d-61fd-4b94-bd57-de7063389122
  5. Bollansée, L., Puimège, E., & Peters, E.
    (2020) “Watch out! Behind you is the enemy!” An exploratory study into the relationship between extramural English and productive vocabulary knowledge. InW. Valentin & T. Friederike (Eds.), Pop culture in language education (pp.–). Routledge. 10.4324/9780367808334‑15
     https://doi.org/10.4324/9780367808334-15 [Google Scholar]
  6. Council of Europe
    Council of Europe (2020) Common European Framework of Reference for languages: Learning, teaching, assessment — Companion volume, Council of Europe Publishing. https://www.coe.int/en/web/common-european-framework-reference-languages
     [Google Scholar]
  7. De Wilde, V., Brysbaert, M., & Eyckmans, J.
    (2020a) Learning English through out-of-school exposure: How do word-related variables and proficiency influence receptive vocabulary learning?Language Learning, (), –. 10.1111/lang.12380
     https://doi.org/10.1111/lang.12380 [Google Scholar]
  8. (2020b) Learning English through out-of-school exposure. Which levels of language proficiency are attained and which types of input are important?Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, (), –. 10.1017/S1366728918001062
     https://doi.org/10.1017/S1366728918001062 [Google Scholar]
  9. (2021) Young learners’ L2 English after the onset of instruction: Longitudinal development of L2 proficiency and the role of individual differences. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, (), –. 10.1017/S1366728920000747
     https://doi.org/10.1017/S1366728920000747 [Google Scholar]
  10. De Wilde, V., & Eyckmans, J.
    (2017) Game on! Young learners’ incidental language learning of English prior to instruction. Studies in Second Language Learning and Teaching, (), –. 10.14746/ssllt.2017.7.4.6
     https://doi.org/10.14746/ssllt.2017.7.4.6 [Google Scholar]
  11. Field, A.
    (2013) Discovering statistics using IBM SPSS statistics. Sage.
     [Google Scholar]
  12. Foster, P. & Skehan, P.
    (1996) The influence of planning and task type on second language performance. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, (), –. 10.1017/S0272263100015047
     https://doi.org/10.1017/S0272263100015047 [Google Scholar]
  13. González-Fernández, B., & Schmitt, N.
    (2015) How much collocation knowledge do L2 learners have? The effects of frequency and amount of exposure. International Journal of Applied Linguistics, (), –. 10.1075/itl.166.1.03fer
     https://doi.org/10.1075/itl.166.1.03fer [Google Scholar]
  14. Hannibal Jensen, S.
    (2017) Gaming as an English language learning resource among young children in Denmark. CALICO Journal, (), –. 10.1558/cj.29519
     https://doi.org/10.1558/cj.29519 [Google Scholar]
  15. Hunt, K.
    (1970) Syntactic maturity in schoolchildren and adults. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, (), –. 10.2307/1165818
     https://doi.org/10.2307/1165818 [Google Scholar]
  16. Kaatari, H., Larsson, T., Wang, Y., Acikara-Eickhoff, S., & Sundqvist, P.
    (2023) Exploring the effects of target-language extramural activities on students’ written production. Journal of Second Language Writing, , . 10.1016/j.jslw.2023.101062
     https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jslw.2023.101062 [Google Scholar]
  17. Kuppens, A. H.
    (2010) Incidental foreign language acquisition from media exposure. Learning, Media and Technology, (), –. 10.1080/17439880903561876
     https://doi.org/10.1080/17439880903561876 [Google Scholar]
  18. Kusyk, M.
    (2017) The development of complexity, accuracy and fluency in L2 written production through informal participation in online activities. CALICO Journal, (), –. 10.1558/cj.29513
     https://doi.org/10.1558/cj.29513 [Google Scholar]
  19. Kyle, K., Crossley, S. A., & Jarvis, S.
    (2021) Assessing the validity of lexical diversity using direct judgements. Language Assessment Quarterly, (), –. 10.1080/15434303.2020.1844205
     https://doi.org/10.1080/15434303.2020.1844205 [Google Scholar]
  20. Larsson, T., & Kaatari, H.
    (2020) Syntactic complexity across registers: Investigating (in)formality in second-language writing. Journal of English for Academic Purposes, , . 10.1016/j.jeap.2020.100850
     https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jeap.2020.100850 [Google Scholar]
  21. Lee, J. S., & Drajati, N. A.
    (2019) Affective variables and informal digital learning of English: Keys to willingness to communicate in a second language. Australasian Journal of Educational Technology, (), –. 10.14742/ajet.5177
     https://doi.org/10.14742/ajet.5177 [Google Scholar]
  22. Lee, M., & Révész, A.
    (2018) Promoting grammatical development through textually enhanced captions: An eye-tracking study. The Modern Language Journal, (), –. 10.1111/modl.12503
     https://doi.org/10.1111/modl.12503 [Google Scholar]
  23. Lee, J. S., & Sylvén, L. K.
    (2021) The role of informal digital learning of English in Korean and Swedish EFL learners’ communication behaviour. British Journal of Educational Technology, (), –. 10.1111/bjet.13082
     https://doi.org/10.1111/bjet.13082 [Google Scholar]
  24. Leona, N. L., van Koert, M. J. H., van der Molen, M. W., Rispens, J. E., Tijms, J., & Snellings, P.
    (2021) Explaining individual differences in young English language learners’ vocabulary knowledge: The role of extramural English exposure and motivation. System, , . 10.1016/j.system.2020.102402
     https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2020.102402 [Google Scholar]
  25. Lindgren, E., & Muñoz, C.
    (2013) The influence of exposure, parents, and linguistic distance on young European learners’ foreign language comprehension. International Journal of Multilingualism, (), –. 10.1080/14790718.2012.679275
     https://doi.org/10.1080/14790718.2012.679275 [Google Scholar]
  26. Lu, X.
    (2010) Automatic analysis of syntactic complexity in second language writing. International Journal of Corpus Linguistics, (), –. 10.1075/ijcl.15.4.02lu
     https://doi.org/10.1075/ijcl.15.4.02lu [Google Scholar]
  27. Lyrigkou, C.
    (2019) Not to be overlooked: Agency in informal language contact. Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching, (), –. 10.1080/17501229.2018.1433182
     https://doi.org/10.1080/17501229.2018.1433182 [Google Scholar]
  28. McCarthy, P. M., & Jarvis, S.
    (2007) vocd: A theoretical and empirical evaluation. Language Testing, (), –. 10.1177/0265532207080767
     https://doi.org/10.1177/0265532207080767 [Google Scholar]
  29. Muñoz, C.
    (2020) Boys like games and girls like movies: Age and gender differences in out-of-school contact with English. Revista Española de Lingüística Aplicada/Spanish Journal of Applied Linguistics, (), –. 10.1075/resla.18042.mun
     https://doi.org/10.1075/resla.18042.mun [Google Scholar]
  30. Muñoz, C., & Cadierno, T.
    (2021) How do differences in exposure affect English language learning? A comparison of teenagers in two learning environments. Studies in Second Language Learning and Teaching, (), –. 10.14746/ssllt.2021.11.2.2
     https://doi.org/10.14746/ssllt.2021.11.2.2 [Google Scholar]
  31. Muñoz, C., Cadierno, T., & Casas, I.
    (2018) Different starting points for English language learning: A comparative study of Danish and Spanish young learners. Language Learning, (), –. 10.1111/lang.12309
     https://doi.org/10.1111/lang.12309 [Google Scholar]
  32. Norris, J., & Ortega, L.
    (2009) Towards an organic approach to investigating CAF in instructed SLA: The case of complexity. Applied Linguistics, (), –. 10.1093/applin/amp044
     https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/amp044 [Google Scholar]
  33. Olsson, E.
    (2012) “Everything I read on the Internet is in English”: On the impact of extramural English on Swedish 16-year-old pupils’ writing proficiency [Master’s thesis, University of Gothenburg]. hdl.handle.net/2077/30417
     [Google Scholar]
  34. (2016) On the impact of extramural English and CLIL on productive vocabulary [Doctoral dissertation, University of Gothenburg]. https://gupea.ub.gu.se/items/a7f12239-9efe-4ad3-8646-ac2324cc9c2a
  35. Olsson, E., & Sylvén, L. K.
    (2015) Extramural English and academic vocabulary. A longitudinal study of CLIL and non-CLIL students in Sweden. Apples — Journal of Applied Language Studies, (), –. 10.17011/apples/urn.201512234129
     https://doi.org/10.17011/apples/urn.201512234129 [Google Scholar]
  36. Ortega, L.
    (2003) Syntactic complexity measures and their relationship to L2 proficiency: A research synthesis of college-level L2 writing. Applied Linguistics, (), –. 10.1093/applin/24.4.492
     https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/24.4.492 [Google Scholar]
  37. Pallotti, G.
    (2009) CAF: Defining, refining, and differentiating constructs. Applied Linguistics, (), –. 10.1093/applin/amp045
     https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/amp045 [Google Scholar]
  38. Pattemore, A., & Muñoz, C.
    (2020) Learning L2 constructions from captioned audio-visual exposure: The effect of learner-related factors. System, , . 10.1016/j.system.2020.102303
     https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2020.102303 [Google Scholar]
  39. Peters, E.
    (2018) The effect of out-of-class exposure to English language media on learners’ vocabulary knowledge. International Journal of Applied Linguistics, (), –. 10.1075/itl.00010.pet
     https://doi.org/10.1075/itl.00010.pet [Google Scholar]
  40. Peters, E., Noreillie, A.-S., Heylen, K., Bulté, B., & Desmet, P.
    (2019) The impact of instruction and out-of-school exposure to foreign language input on learners’ vocabulary knowledge in two languages. Language Learning, (), –. 10.1111/lang.12351
     https://doi.org/10.1111/lang.12351 [Google Scholar]
  41. Peters, E., & Webb, S.
    (2018) Incidental vocabulary acquisition through viewing L2 television and factors that affect learning. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, (), –. 10.1017/S0272263117000407
     https://doi.org/10.1017/S0272263117000407 [Google Scholar]
  42. Pfau, A., Polio, C., & Xu, Y.
    (2023) Exploring the potential of ChatGPT in assessing L2 writing accuracy for research purposes. Research Methods in Applied Linguistics, (), . 10.1016/j.rmal.2023.100083
     https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rmal.2023.100083 [Google Scholar]
  43. Plonsky, L.
    (2015) Statistical power, p values, descriptive statistics, and effect sizes. A “back-to-basics” approach to advancing quantitative methods in L2 research. InL. Plonsky (Ed.), Advancing quantitative methods in second language research (pp.–). Routledge. 10.4324/9781315870908‑3
     https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315870908-3 [Google Scholar]
  44. Polio, C., & Shea, M. C.
    (2014) An investigation into current measures of linguistic accuracy in second language writing research. Journal of Second Language Writing, , –. 10.1016/j.jslw.2014.09.003
     https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jslw.2014.09.003 [Google Scholar]
  45. Polio, C., & Yoon, H.
    (2018) The reliability and validity of automated tools for examining variation in syntactic complexity across genres. International Journal of Applied Linguistics, (), –. 10.1111/ijal.12200
     https://doi.org/10.1111/ijal.12200 [Google Scholar]
  46. Schwarz, M.
    (2020) Beyond the walls: A mixed methods study of teenagers’ extramural English practices and their vocabulary knowledge [Doctoral dissertation, University of Vienna]. https://othes.univie.ac.at/63632/
  47. Sockett, G.
    (2014) The Online Informal Learning of English. Palgrave Macmillan. 10.1057/9781137414885
     https://doi.org/10.1057/9781137414885 [Google Scholar]
  48. Sundqvist, P.
    (2009) Extramural English Matters: Out-of-school English and its impact on Swedish ninth graders’ oral proficiency and vocabulary [Doctoral dissertation, Karlstad University]. DiVA. https://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:kau:diva-488
  49. (2011) A possible path to progress: Out-of-school English language learners in Sweden. InP. Benson & H. Reinders (Eds.), Beyond the Language Classroom (pp.–). Palgrave Macmillan. 10.1057/9780230306790_9
     https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230306790_9 [Google Scholar]
  50. (2019) Commercial-off-the-shelf games in the digital wild and L2 learner vocabulary. Language Learning & Technology, (), –. 10.64152/10125/44674
     https://doi.org/10.64152/10125/44674 [Google Scholar]
  51. (2024) Extramural English as an individual difference variable in L2 research: Methodology matters. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, , –. 10.1017/S0267190524000072
     https://doi.org/10.1017/S0267190524000072 [Google Scholar]
  52. Sundqvist, P., & Wikström, P.
    (2015) Out-of-school digital gameplay and in-school L2 English vocabulary outcomes. System, , –. 10.1016/j.system.2015.04.001
     https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2015.04.001 [Google Scholar]
  53. Sylvén, L. K., & Sundqvist, P.
    (2012) Gaming as extramural English L2 learning and L2 proficiency among young learners. ReCALL, (), –. 10.1017/S095834401200016X
     https://doi.org/10.1017/S095834401200016X [Google Scholar]
  54. Tran, L., & Miralpeix, I.
    (2024) Out-of-school exposure to English in EFL teenage learners: Is it related to academic performance?Education Sciences, (), . 10.3390/educsci14040393
     https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci14040393 [Google Scholar]
  55. Vanderplank, R.
    (1988) The value of teletext sub-titles in language learning. ELT Journal, (), –. 10.1093/elt/42.4.272
     https://doi.org/10.1093/elt/42.4.272 [Google Scholar]
  56. Verspoor, M. H., de Bot, K., & van Rein, E.
    (2011) English as a foreign language: The role of out-of-school language input. InA. de Houwer, & A. Wilton (Eds.), English in Europe today: Sociocultural and educational perspectives (pp.–). John Benjamins. 10.1075/aals.8.10ver
     https://doi.org/10.1075/aals.8.10ver [Google Scholar]
  57. Verspoor, M., Lowie, W., & van Dijk, M.
    (2008) Variability in second language development from a dynamic systems perspective. Modern Language Journal, (), –. 10.1111/j.1540‑4781.2008.00715.x
     https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4781.2008.00715.x [Google Scholar]
  58. Verspoor, M., Schmid, M. S., & Xu, X.
    (2012) A dynamic usage-based perspective on L2 writing. Journal of Second Language Writing, (), –. 10.1016/j.jslw.2012.03.007
     https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jslw.2012.03.007 [Google Scholar]
  59. Webb, S., & Rodgers, M. P. H.
    (2009) Vocabulary demands of television programs. Language Learning, (), –. 10.1111/j.1467‑9922.2009.00509.x
     https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9922.2009.00509.x [Google Scholar]
  60. Wolfe-Quintero, K., Inagaki, S., & Kim, H.-Y.
    (1998) Second language development in writing: Measures of fluency, accuracy & complexity. University of Hawaii Press.
     [Google Scholar]
  61. Yi, Y.
    (2005) Asian adolescents’ out-of-school encounters with English and Korean literacy. Journal of Asian Pacific Communication, (), –. 10.1075/japc.15.1.06yi
     https://doi.org/10.1075/japc.15.1.06yi [Google Scholar]
  62. Yoon, H.-J., & Polio, C.
    (2017) The linguistic development of students of English as a second language in two written genres. TESOL Quarterly, (), –. 10.1002/tesq.296
     https://doi.org/10.1002/tesq.296 [Google Scholar]
  63. Zenker, F., & Kyle, K.
    (2021) Investigating minimum text lengths for lexical diversity indices. Assessing Writing, , . 10.1016/j.asw.2020.100505
     https://doi.org/10.1016/j.asw.2020.100505 [Google Scholar]
/content/journals/10.1075/itl.25022.fer
Loading
Assessing the relationship between extramural English and L2 writing
John Benjamins ; https://doi.org/10.1075/itl.25022.fer
/content/journals/10.1075/itl.25022.fer
/content/journals/10.1075/itl.25022.fer
Loading

Data & Media loading...

  • Article Type: Research Article
Keywords: L2 writing ; complexity ; extramural English ; accuracy ; fluency

Most Cited

This is a required field
Please enter a valid email address
Approval was successful
Invalid data
An Error Occurred
Approval was partially successful, following selected items could not be processed due to error