1887
Volume 9, Issue 1
  • ISSN 2213-1272
  • E-ISSN: 2213-1280
USD
Buy:$35.00 + Taxes

Abstract

Abstract

The present article explores the interface between online misogyny and xenophobia in the context of both socio-cultural factors which are conducive to verbal aggression against women and cyberspace’s technological affordances. The former, as will be argued, can be linked to “rape culture”, where the notions of rape and sexual violence are used not only as instruments of subjugation and domination, but also as tools to legitimize racial, ethnic, or religious hatred. In the case of the latter, anonymity, interactivity and connectivity will be discussed as factors which facilitate generating, amplifying and perpetuating hateful and aggressive content online. Applying the Media Proximization Approach (Kopytowska 20132015a2018a2018b2020) and drawing on previous research examining online xenophobic discourses and hate speech, the article scrutinizes hate speech targeting female politicians, namely Angela Merkel, current Chancellor of Germany, and Ewa Kopacz, former Polish Prime Minister, for their pro-refugee stance and migration policy. Data-wise, the examples analyzed will be taken from the corpora comprising comments following online articles in (a Polish conservative news portal) and YouTube videos on migrants and refugees.

Loading

Article metrics loading...

/content/journals/10.1075/jlac.00054.kop
2021-03-04
2024-12-10
Loading full text...

Full text loading...

References

  1. AFP
    AFP. “Merkel: From Austerity Queen to ‘Leader of Free World’.” Times of Israel, December3 2016 Last accessed15 April 2020atwww.timesofisrael.com/merkel-from-austerity-queen-to-leader-of-free-world/
  2. Ahmed, Leila
    1992Women and Gender in Islam: Historical Roots of a Modern Debate. New Haven: Yale University Press.
    [Google Scholar]
  3. Alam, Zainab
    2021 “Violence against Women in Politics: The Case of Pakistani Women’s Activism.” Journal of Language Aggression and Conflict: Special Issue on Critical Perspectives on Gender, Politics and Violence. 10.1075/jlac.00052.ala
    https://doi.org/10.1075/jlac.00052.ala [Google Scholar]
  4. Baider, Fabienne
    2018 “‘Go To Hell Fucking Faggots, May You Die!’. Framing the LGBT Subject in Online Comments.” Lodz Papers in Pragmatics14(1): 69–92. 10.1515/lpp‑2018‑0004
    https://doi.org/10.1515/lpp-2018-0004 [Google Scholar]
  5. Baider, Fabienne, and Monika Kopytowska
    2017 “Conceptualising the Other: Online Discourses on the Current Refugee Crisis in Cyprus and in Poland.” Lodz Papers in Pragmatics13(2): 203–233. 10.1515/lpp‑2017‑0011
    https://doi.org/10.1515/lpp-2017-0011 [Google Scholar]
  6. 2018 “Narrating Hostility, Challenging Hostile Narratives.” Lodz Papers in Pragmatics14(1): 1–24. 10.1515/lpp‑2018‑0001
    https://doi.org/10.1515/lpp-2018-0001 [Google Scholar]
  7. Banet-Weiser, Sarah, and Kate Miltner
    2016 “#MasculinitySoFragile: Culture, Structure and Networked Misogyny.” Feminist Media Studies16(1): 171–174. 10.1080/14680777.2016.1120490
    https://doi.org/10.1080/14680777.2016.1120490 [Google Scholar]
  8. Barker, Kim, and Olga Jurasz
    2019 “Online Misogyny: A Challenge for Digital Feminism?” Journal of International Affairs72(2): 95–113.
    [Google Scholar]
  9. Brownmiller, Susan
    1975Against our Will. Men, Women and Rape. New York: Simon and Schuster.
    [Google Scholar]
  10. Buchwald, Emilie, Pamela R. Fletcher, and Martha Roth
    1993Transforming a Rape Culture. Minneapolis: Milkweed Editions.
    [Google Scholar]
  11. Butler, Judith
    2009 “Performativity, Precarity and Sexual Politics.” AIBR. Revista de Antropología Iberoamericana4(3): i–xiii. 10.11156/aibr.040303e
    https://doi.org/10.11156/aibr.040303e [Google Scholar]
  12. Chouliaraki, Lilie
    2008The Spectatorship of Suffering. London: Sage.
    [Google Scholar]
  13. Citron, Danielle Keats
    2009 “Law’s Expressive Value in Combating Cyber Gender Harassment.” Michigan Law Review108(3): 373–415.
    [Google Scholar]
  14. Cole, Kirsti K.
    2015 “‘It’s like she’s Eager to be Verbally Abused’: Twitter, Trolls, and (En)Gendering Disciplinary Rhetoric.” Feminist Media Studies15(2): 356–358. 10.1080/14680777.2015.1008750
    https://doi.org/10.1080/14680777.2015.1008750 [Google Scholar]
  15. Connell, Raewyn W.
    2005Masculinities (2nd ed.). Berkeley, California: University of California Press.
    [Google Scholar]
  16. Connell, Raewyn W., and James Messerschmidt
    2005 “Hegemonic Masculinity: Rethinking the Concept.” Gender & Society19(6): 829–859. 10.1177/0891243205278639
    https://doi.org/10.1177/0891243205278639 [Google Scholar]
  17. Dibbell, Julian
    1993 “A Rape in Cyberspace.” The Village Voice, December21.
    [Google Scholar]
  18. Dragotto, Francesca, Elisa Giomi, and Sonia M. Melchiorre
    2020 “Putting Women back in their Place: Reflections on Slut-Shaming, the Case Asia Argento and Twitter in Italy.” International Review of Sociology30(1): 46–70. 10.1080/03906701.2020.1724366
    https://doi.org/10.1080/03906701.2020.1724366 [Google Scholar]
  19. Eriksson Baaz, Maria, and Maria Stern
    2013Sexual Violence as a Weapon of War? Perceptions, Prescriptions, Problems in the Congo and Beyond. London: Zed Books. 10.5040/9781350222557
    https://doi.org/10.5040/9781350222557 [Google Scholar]
  20. 2018 “Curious Erasures: The Sexual in Wartime Sexual Violence.” International Feminist Journal of Politics20(3): 295–314. 10.1080/14616742.2018.1459197
    https://doi.org/10.1080/14616742.2018.1459197 [Google Scholar]
  21. Esposito, Eleonora, and Sole Alba Zollo
    2021 “‘How dare you call her a pig, I know several pigs who would be upset if they knew’: A Multimodal Critical Discursive Approach to Online Misogyny against UK MPs on YouTube.” Journal of Language Aggression and Conflict: Special Issue on Critical Perspectives on Gender, Politics and Violence. 10.1075/jlac.00053.esp
    https://doi.org/10.1075/jlac.00053.esp [Google Scholar]
  22. Esposito, Eleonora
    2021 “Introduction: Critical Perspectives on Gender, Politics and Violence.” Journal of Language Aggression and Conflict: Special Issue on Critical Perspectives on Gender, Politics and Violence. 10.1075/jlac.00051.int
    https://doi.org/10.1075/jlac.00051.int [Google Scholar]
  23. Farris, Sara R.
    2017In the Name of Women’s Rights: The Rise of Femonationalism. Durham: Duke University Press. 10.1215/9780822372929
    https://doi.org/10.1215/9780822372929 [Google Scholar]
  24. Forbes
    Forbes 2019 “The World’s 100 Most Powerful Women.” Last Accessed17 May 2020athttps://www.forbes.com/power-women/list/#tab:overall
  25. Foucault, Michel
    1977Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison. New York: Random House.
    [Google Scholar]
  26. Fox, Jesse, and Tang Wai Yen
    2014 “Sexism in Online Video Games: The Role of Conformity to Masculine Norms and Social Dominance Orientation.” Computers in Human Behavior33: 314–320. 10.1016/j.chb.2013.07.014
    https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2013.07.014 [Google Scholar]
  27. Hardaker, Claire, and Mark McGlashan
    2015 “‘Real Men don’t Hate Women’: Twitter Rape Threats and Group Identity.” Journal of Pragmatics91: 81–93.
    [Google Scholar]
  28. Harduf, Asaf
    . (October 2019) “Virtually Rape: Should Cyber Sexual Offensiveness Constitute Rape?” Last accessed17 May 2020athttps://ssrn.com/abstract=3473826
  29. Hoogensen, Gynhild, and Kirsti Stuvøy
    2006 “Gender, Resistance and Human Security.” Security Dialogue37(2): 207–228. 10.1177/0967010606066436
    https://doi.org/10.1177/0967010606066436 [Google Scholar]
  30. Hutchby, Ian
    2001 “Technologies, Texts, and Affordances.” Sociology35(2): 441–456. 10.1177/S0038038501000219
    https://doi.org/10.1177/S0038038501000219 [Google Scholar]
  31. IPU
    IPU 2018 “Sexism, Harassment and Violence against Women in Parliaments in Europe.” Inter-Parliamentary Union. Last accessed20 May 2020athttps://www.ipu.org/resources/publications/issue-briefs/2018-10/sexism-harassment-and-violence-against-women-in-parliaments-in-europe
  32. Jakubowicz, Andrew
    2017 “Alt_Right White Lite: Trolling, Hate Speech and Cyber Racism on Social Media.” Cosmopolitan Civil Societies: An Interdisciplinary Journal9(3): 41–60.
    [Google Scholar]
  33. Jakubowicz, Andrew, Kevin Dunn, Gail Mason, Yin Paradies, Ana-Maria Bliuc, Nasya Bahfen, Andre Oboler, Rosalie Atie, and Karen Connelly
    2017Cyber Racism and Community Resilience: Strategies for Combating Online Race Hate. London: Palgrave Macmillan. 10.1007/978‑3‑319‑64388‑5
    https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-64388-5 [Google Scholar]
  34. Jane, Emma
    2016 “Online Misogyny and Feminist Digilantism.” Continuum: Journal of Media & Cultural Studies30(3): 284–297. 10.1080/10304312.2016.1166560
    https://doi.org/10.1080/10304312.2016.1166560 [Google Scholar]
  35. 2017Misogyny Online: A Short (and Brutish) History. London: Sage. 10.4135/9781473916029
    https://doi.org/10.4135/9781473916029 [Google Scholar]
  36. Kalra, Gurvinder, and Dinesh Bhugra
    2013 “Sexual Violence against Women: Understanding Cross-Cultural Intersections.” Indian Journal of Psychiatry55: 244–249. doi:  10.4103/0019‑5545.117139
    https://doi.org/10.4103/0019-5545.117139 [Google Scholar]
  37. KhosraviNik, Majid
    2014 “Critical Discourse Analysis, Power and New Media Discourse.” InWhy Discourse Matters: Negotiating Identity in the Mediatized World, edited byYusuf Kalyango and Monika Kopytowska, 287–306. New York: Peter Lang.
    [Google Scholar]
  38. 2017a “Right Wing Populism in the West: Social Media Discourse and Echo Chambers.” Insight Turkey19(3): 53–68. 10.25253/99.2017193.04
    https://doi.org/10.25253/99.2017193.04 [Google Scholar]
  39. 2017b “Social Media Critical Discourse Studies (SM-CDS).” InThe Handbook of Critical Discourse Analysis, edited byJohn Flowerdew and John E. Richardson, 583–596. London: Routledge.
    [Google Scholar]
  40. 2018 “Social Media Techno-Discursive Design, Affective Communication and Contemporary Politics.” Fudan Journal of the Humanities and Social Sciences11: 427–442. 10.1007/s40647‑018‑0226‑y
    https://doi.org/10.1007/s40647-018-0226-y [Google Scholar]
  41. KhosraviNik, Majid, and Eleonora Esposito
    2018 “Online Hate, Digital Discourse and Critique: Exploring Digitally-Mediated Discursive Practices of Gender-Based Hostility.” Lodz Papers in Pragmatics14(1): 45–58. 10.1515/lpp‑2018‑0003
    https://doi.org/10.1515/lpp-2018-0003 [Google Scholar]
  42. Kiesler, Sara, Jane Siegel, and Timothy McGuire
    1984 “Social Psychological Aspects of Computer-Mediated Communication.” American Psychologist39: 1123–1134. 10.1037/0003‑066X.39.10.1123
    https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.39.10.1123 [Google Scholar]
  43. Kilgarriff, Adam, Vit Baisa, Jan Bušta, Milos Jakubícek, Vojtech Kovář, Jan Michelfeit, Pavel Rychlý, and Vit Suchomel
    2014 “The Sketch Engine: Ten Years on”. Lexicography1(1): 7–36. 10.1007/s40607‑014‑0009‑9
    https://doi.org/10.1007/s40607-014-0009-9 [Google Scholar]
  44. Kimmel, Michael S.
    2013Angry White Men: American Masculinity at the End of an Era. New York: Nation Books.
    [Google Scholar]
  45. Kimmel, Michael S., and Matthew Mahler
    2003 “Adolescent Masculinity, Homophobia, and Violence: Random School Shootings, 1982–2001.” American Behavioral Scientist46(10): 1439–1458. 10.1177/0002764203046010010
    https://doi.org/10.1177/0002764203046010010 [Google Scholar]
  46. Kopytowska, Monika
    2013 “Blogging as the Mediatization of Politics and a New Form of Social Interaction. A Case Study of Polish and British Political Blogs.” InAnalyzing Genres in Political Communication, edited byPiotr Cap and Urszula Okulska, 379–421. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. 10.1075/dapsac.50.15kop
    https://doi.org/10.1075/dapsac.50.15kop [Google Scholar]
  47. 2014 “Pictures in our Heads: Crisis, Conflict, and Drama.” InWhy Discourse Matters: Negotiating Identity in the Mediatized World, edited byYusuf Kalyango and Monika Kopytowska, 89–109. New York: Peter Lang.
    [Google Scholar]
  48. 2015a “Mediating Identity, Ideology and Values in the Public Sphere: Towards a New Model of (Constructed) Social Reality.” Lodz Papers in Pragmatics11(2): 133–156. doi:  10.1515/lpp‑2015‑0008
    https://doi.org/10.1515/lpp-2015-0008 [Google Scholar]
  49. (ed.) 2015b “Introduction: Discourse of Hate and Radicalism in Action.” [Special Issue on Discourses of Hate and Radicalism across Space and Genres]. Journal of Language Aggression and Conflict3(1): 1–11. 10.1075/jlac.3.1.001ed
    https://doi.org/10.1075/jlac.3.1.001ed [Google Scholar]
  50. 2015c “Ideology of ‘Here’ and ‘Now’”. Critical Discourse Studies12(3): 347–365. doi:  10.1080/17405904.2015.1013485
    https://doi.org/10.1080/17405904.2015.1013485 [Google Scholar]
  51. 2017 “Introduction: Discourses of Hate and Radicalism in Action.” InContemporary Discourses of Hate and Radicalism across Space and Genres, edited byMonika Kopytowska, 1–12. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. 10.1075/bct.93.001ed
    https://doi.org/10.1075/bct.93.001ed [Google Scholar]
  52. 2018a “The Televisualization of Ritual: Spirituality, Spatiality and Co-Presence in Religious Broadcasting.” InReligion, Language and Human Mind, edited byPaul Chilton and Monika Kopytowska, 437–473. New York: Oxford University Press.
    [Google Scholar]
  53. 2018b “Culture, Mediated Experience and the Semiotics of Distance.” InCurrent perspectives in Semiotics: Signs, Signification and Communication, edited byArtur Gałkowski and Monika Kopytowska, 221–234. Frankfurt: Peter Lang. 10.3726/b15062
    https://doi.org/10.3726/b15062 [Google Scholar]
  54. 2020 “Proximization, Prosumption and Salience in Digital Discourse: On the Interface of Social Media Communicative Dynamics and the Spread of Populist Ideologies.” [Special Issue on Social Media Critical Discourse Studies]. Critical Discourse Studies. doi:  10.1080/17405904.2020.1842774
    https://doi.org/10.1080/17405904.2020.1842774 [Google Scholar]
  55. Kopytowska, Monika, and Łukasz Grabowski
    2017 “European Security under Threat: Mediating the Crisis and Constructing the Other.” InNational Identity and Europe in Times of Crisis: Doing and Undoing Europe, edited byChristian Karner and Monika Kopytowska, 83–112. Bingley: Emerald Publishing. 10.1108/978‑1‑78714‑513‑920171005
    https://doi.org/10.1108/978-1-78714-513-920171005 [Google Scholar]
  56. Kopytowska, Monika, Julita Woźniak, and Łukasz Grabowski
    2017 “From ‘Patriotism’ to Hate: Axiological Urgency in Online Comments Related to Refugees”. InOnline Hate Speech in the European Union: A Discourse-Analytic Perspective, edited byStavros Assimakopoulos, Fabienne H. Baider and Sharon Millar, 42–51. Berlin: Springer.
    [Google Scholar]
  57. Kopytowska, Monika, Łukasz Grabowski, and Julita Woźniak
    2017 “Mobilizing Against the Other: Cyberhate, Refugee Crisis and Proximization”. InContemporary Discourses of Hate and Radicalism across Space and Genres, edited byMonika Kopytowska, 57–97. Amsterdam/Philadephia: John Benjamins. 10.1075/bct.93.11kop
    https://doi.org/10.1075/bct.93.11kop [Google Scholar]
  58. Kopytowska, Monika, and Paul Chilton
    2018 “‘Rivers of Blood’: Migration, Fear and Threat Construction.” Lodz Papers in Pragmatics14(1): 133–161. 10.1515/lpp‑2018‑0007
    https://doi.org/10.1515/lpp-2018-0007 [Google Scholar]
  59. Kosnick, Kira
    2015 “A Clash of Subcultures? Questioning Queer-Muslim Antagonisms in the Neoliberal City.” International Journal of Urban and Regional Research39(4): 687–690. 10.1111/1468‑2427.12261
    https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-2427.12261 [Google Scholar]
  60. Koulouris, Theodore
    2018 “Online Misogyny and the Alternative Right: Debating the Undebatable.” Feminist Media Studies18(4): 750–761. 10.1080/14680777.2018.1447428
    https://doi.org/10.1080/14680777.2018.1447428 [Google Scholar]
  61. Kreft, Anne-Kathrin
    2020 “Civil Society Perspectives on Sexual Violence in Conflict: Patriarchy and War Strategy in Colombia.” International Affairs, 96(2): 457–478. 10.1093/ia/iiz257
    https://doi.org/10.1093/ia/iiz257 [Google Scholar]
  62. Kuperberg, Rebecca
    2021 “Incongruous and Illegitimate: Antisemitic and Islamophobic Semiotic Violence against Women in Politics in the United Kingdom” Journal of Language Aggression and Conflict: Special Issue on Critical Perspectives on Gender, Politics and Violence. 10.1075/jlac.00055.kup
    https://doi.org/10.1075/jlac.00055.kup [Google Scholar]
  63. Lea, Martin, and Russel Spears
    1991 “Computer-Mediated Communication, De-Individuation and Group Decision-Making.” International Journal of Man Machine Studies34: 283–301. 10.1016/0020‑7373(91)90045‑9
    https://doi.org/10.1016/0020-7373(91)90045-9 [Google Scholar]
  64. Lewandowska-Tomaszczyk, Barbara
    2015 “Emergent Group Identity Construal in Online Discussions: A Linguistic Perspective.” InRevitalising Audience Research: Innovations in European Audience Research, edited byFrauke Zeller, Cristina Ponte and Brian O’Neill, 80–105. New York: Routledge.
    [Google Scholar]
  65. 2017 “Incivility and Confrontation in Online Conflict Discourses.” Lodz Papers in Pragmatics13(2): 347–367. 10.1515/lpp‑2017‑0017
    https://doi.org/10.1515/lpp-2017-0017 [Google Scholar]
  66. MacKinnon, Catharine
    1994 “Rape, Genocide and Women’s Human Rights.” Harvard Women’s Law Journal17: 5–16.
    [Google Scholar]
  67. Mantilla, Karla
    2013 “Gendertrolling: Misogyny Adapts to New Media.” Feminist Studies39(2): 563–570.
    [Google Scholar]
  68. Matamoros-Fernández, Ariadna
    2017 “Platformed Racism: The Mediation and Circulation of an Australian Race-Based Controversy on Twitter, Facebook and YouTube.” Information, Communication & Society20(6): 930–946. 10.1080/1369118X.2017.1293130
    https://doi.org/10.1080/1369118X.2017.1293130 [Google Scholar]
  69. McEnery, Tony, and Andrew Hardie
    2012Corpus Linguistics: Method, Theory and Practice. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
    [Google Scholar]
  70. McKenna, Katelyn Y. A.
    2007 “Through the Internet Looking Glass: Expressing and Validating the True Self.” InThe Oxford Handbook of Internet Psychology, edited byAdam N. Joinson, Katelyn Y. A. McKenna, Tom Postmes and Ulf-Dietrich Reips. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
    [Google Scholar]
  71. McPhail, Beverly A.
    2016 “Feminist Framework Plus: Knitting Feminist Theories of Rape. Etiology into a Comprehensive Model.” Trauma, Violence & Abuse17(3): 314–329. 10.1177/1524838015584367
    https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838015584367 [Google Scholar]
  72. Megarry, Jessica
    2014 “Online Incivility or Sexual Harassment? Conceptualising Women’s Experiences in the Digital Age”. Women’s Studies International Forum47: 46–55. 10.1016/j.wsif.2014.07.012
    https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wsif.2014.07.012 [Google Scholar]
  73. Motschenbacher, Heiko
    2013 “Focusing on Normativity in Language and Sexuality Studies: Insights from Conversations on Objectophilia.” Critical Discourse Studies11(1): 49–70. 10.1080/17405904.2013.836113
    https://doi.org/10.1080/17405904.2013.836113 [Google Scholar]
  74. Mulinari, Diana, and Anders Neergaard
    2014 “We are Sweden Democrats because we Care for Others: Exploring Racism in the Swedish Extreme Right.” European Journal of Women’s Studies21: 43–56. 10.1515/njmr‑2017‑0016
    https://doi.org/10.1515/njmr-2017-0016 [Google Scholar]
  75. Norocel, Ov Cristian
    2010 “Romania is a Family and it Needs a Strict Father: Conceptual Metaphors at Work in Radical Right Populist Discourses.” Nationalities Papers38(5): 705–721. 10.1080/00905992.2010.498465
    https://doi.org/10.1080/00905992.2010.498465 [Google Scholar]
  76. Nussbaum, Martha
    2012 “Objectification and Internet Misogyny.” InThe Offensive Internet, edited bySaul Levmore and Martha Nussbaum, 68–90. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. 10.2307/j.ctvjf9zc8.7
    https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctvjf9zc8.7 [Google Scholar]
  77. Papacharissi, Zizi
    2015Affective Publics: Sentiment, Technology, and Politics. New York: Oxford University Press.
    [Google Scholar]
  78. Phipps, Alison
    2014The Politics of the Body: Gender in a Neoliberal and Neoconservative age. London: Polity Press.
    [Google Scholar]
  79. Poland, Bailey
    2016Haters: Harassment, Abuse, and Violence Online. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press. 10.2307/j.ctt1fq9wdp
    https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctt1fq9wdp [Google Scholar]
  80. Postmes, Tom, and Russell Spears
    2002 “Behavior Online: Does Anonymous Computer Communication Reduce Gender Inequality?” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin28(8): 1073–1083. 10.1177/01461672022811006
    https://doi.org/10.1177/01461672022811006 [Google Scholar]
  81. Postmes, Tom, Russell Spears, and Martin Lea
    2002 “Intergroup Differentiation in Computer-Mediated Communication: Effects of Depersonalization.” Group Dynamics6(1): 3–16. 10.1037/1089‑2699.6.1.3
    https://doi.org/10.1037/1089-2699.6.1.3 [Google Scholar]
  82. Powell, Anastasia, and Nicola Henry
    2017 “Online Misogyny, Harassment and Hate Crimes”. InSexual Violence in the Digital Age, edited byAnastasia Powell and Nicola Henry, 153–193. London: Palgrave Macmillan.
    [Google Scholar]
  83. Reicher, Stephen, Russell Spears, and Tom Postmes
    1995 “A Social Identity Model of Deindividuation Phenomena.” European Review of Social Psychology6: 161–198. 10.1080/14792779443000049
    https://doi.org/10.1080/14792779443000049 [Google Scholar]
  84. Richardson-Self, Louise
    2018 “Woman-Hating: On Misogyny, Sexism, and Hate Speech.” Hypathia33(2): 256–272. 10.1111/hypa.12398
    https://doi.org/10.1111/hypa.12398 [Google Scholar]
  85. 2019 “Cis-Hetero-Misogyny Online.” Ethical Theory & Moral Practice22(3): 573–587. 10.1007/s10677‑019‑10019‑5
    https://doi.org/10.1007/s10677-019-10019-5 [Google Scholar]
  86. Sager, Maja, and Diana Mulinari
    2018 “Safety for whom? Exploring Femonationalism and Care-racism in Sweden.” Women’s Studies International Forum68: 149–156. 10.1016/j.wsif.2017.12.002
    https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wsif.2017.12.002 [Google Scholar]
  87. Santana, Arthur D.
    2014 “Virtuous or Vitriolic.” Journalism Practice8(1): 18–33. 10.1080/17512786.2013.813194
    https://doi.org/10.1080/17512786.2013.813194 [Google Scholar]
  88. Sitkin, Rachel A., Bandy X. Lee, and Grace Lee
    2019 “To Destroy a People: Sexual Violence as a Form of Genocide in the Conflicts of Bosnia, Rwanda, and Chile.” Aggression & Violent Behavior46: 219–224. 10.1016/j.avb.2019.01.013
    https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2019.01.013 [Google Scholar]
  89. Suler, John
    2004 “The Online Disinhibition Effect.” CyberPsychology & Behavior7(3): 321–326. 10.1089/1094931041291295
    https://doi.org/10.1089/1094931041291295 [Google Scholar]
  90. Tadic, Bosljka, Vladimir, Gligorijevic, Marija Mitrovic, and Milovan Suvakov
    2013 “Co-evolutionary Mechanisms of Emotional Bursts in Online Social Dynamics and Networks.” Entropy15: 5084–5120. 10.3390/e15125084
    https://doi.org/10.3390/e15125084 [Google Scholar]
  91. Vick, Karl
    2015 “Time Person of the Year 2015: Angela Merkel”. Time. Last accessed30 May 2020athttps://time.com/time-person-of-the-year-2015-angela-merkel/
    [Google Scholar]
  92. Vickery, Jacqueline Ryan, and Tracy Everbach
    2018Mediating Misogyny: Gender, Technology, and Harassment. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. 10.1007/978‑3‑319‑72917‑6
    https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-72917-6 [Google Scholar]
  93. Ylä-Anttila, Tuukka, Gwenaëlle Bauvois, and Niko Pyrhönen
    2019 “Politicization of Migration in the Countermedia Style: A Computational and Qualitative Analysis of Populist Discourse.” Discourse, Context & Media32: 1–8. 10.1016/j.dcm.2019.100326
    https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dcm.2019.100326 [Google Scholar]
/content/journals/10.1075/jlac.00054.kop
Loading
  • Article Type: Research Article
Keyword(s): cyberspace; Media Proximization Approach; misogyny; rape culture; refugees; xenophobia
This is a required field
Please enter a valid email address
Approval was successful
Invalid data
An Error Occurred
Approval was partially successful, following selected items could not be processed due to error