1887
image of Sound communities

Abstract

Abstract

Bilingualism researchers have intensively studied how learning and using multiple languages affects all levels of linguistic structure. In this strand, examining diversity in the bilingual experience and the extent to which variables like language dominance regulate crosslinguistic interaction has been of special interest. However, most studies sample small groups of bilinguals from a single research site, creating a twofold generalizability problem. First, with small samples it is unlikely that researchers will be able to fully capture and quantify the range of variables known to affect findings. Second, when bilinguals are recruited from a single site, it is impossible to determine if findings are site-specific or apply to bilinguals more broadly. To address these issues, we propose a large(r)-scale, multisite approach to bilingualism research. We believe that such an approach, when informed by open science practices, has the potential to significantly advance the state of the art.

Available under the CC BY 4.0 license.
Loading

Article metrics loading...

/content/journals/10.1075/jslp.25016.nag
2026-02-05
2026-02-12
Loading full text...

Full text loading...

/deliver/fulltext/10.1075/jslp.25016.nag/jslp.25016.nag.html?itemId=/content/journals/10.1075/jslp.25016.nag&mimeType=html&fmt=ahah

References

  1. Achugar, M., & Pessoa, S.
    (2009) Power and place: Language attitudes towards Spanish in a bilingual academic community in Southwest Texas. Spanish in Context, (), –. 10.1075/sic.6.2.03ach
    https://doi.org/10.1075/sic.6.2.03ach [Google Scholar]
  2. Amengual, M.
    (2012) Interlingual influence in bilingual speech: Cognate status effect in a continuum of bilingualism. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, (), –. 10.1017/S1366728911000460
    https://doi.org/10.1017/S1366728911000460 [Google Scholar]
  3. (2018) Asymmetrical interlingual influence in the production of Spanish and English laterals as a result of competing activation in bilingual language processing. Journal of Phonetics, , –. 10.1016/j.wocn.2018.04.002
    https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wocn.2018.04.002 [Google Scholar]
  4. Amengual, M., & Simonet, M.
    (2020) Language dominance does not always predict cross-linguistic interactions in bilingual speech production. Linguistic Approaches to Bilingualism, (), –. 10.1075/lab.18042.ame
    https://doi.org/10.1075/lab.18042.ame [Google Scholar]
  5. Andringa, S., & Godfroid, A.
    (2020) Sampling bias and the problem of generalizability in applied linguistics. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, , –. 10.1017/S0267190520000033
    https://doi.org/10.1017/S0267190520000033 [Google Scholar]
  6. Antoniou, M., Tyler, M. D., & Best, C. T.
    (2012) Two ways to listen: Do L2-dominant bilinguals perceive stop voicing according to language mode?Journal of Phonetics, (), –. 10.1016/j.wocn.2012.05.005
    https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wocn.2012.05.005 [Google Scholar]
  7. Au, T. K., Knightly, L. M., Jun, S.-A., & Oh, J. S.
    (2002) Overhearing a language during childhood. Psychological Science, (), –. 10.1111/1467‑9280.00444
    https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9280.00444 [Google Scholar]
  8. Barr, D. J., Levy, R., Scheepers, C., & Tily, H. J.
    (2013) Random effects structure for confirmatory hypothesis testing: Keep it maximal. Journal of Memory and Language, (), –. 10.1016/j.jml.2012.11.001
    https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jml.2012.11.001 [Google Scholar]
  9. Baum, S., & Titone, D.
    (2014) Moving toward a neuroplasticity view of bilingualism, executive control, and aging. Applied Psycholinguistics, (), –. 10.1017/S0142716414000174
    https://doi.org/10.1017/S0142716414000174 [Google Scholar]
  10. Bayley, R., Cárdenas, N. L., Schouten, B. T., & Salas, C. M. V.
    (2012) Spanish dialect contact in San Antonio, Texas: An exploratory study. Selected Proceedings of the 14th Hispanic Linguistics Symposium, –.
    [Google Scholar]
  11. Beatty-Martinez, A. L., & Titone, D. A.
    (2021) The quest for signals in noise: Leveraging experiential variation to identify bilingual phenotypes. Languages, (), . 10.3390/languages6040168
    https://doi.org/10.3390/languages6040168 [Google Scholar]
  12. Bialystok, E.
    (2021) Bilingualism as a slice of Swiss cheese. Frontiers in Psychology, , –. 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.769323
    https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.769323 [Google Scholar]
  13. Birdsong, D.
    (2014) Dominance and age in bilingualism. Applied Linguistics, (), –. 10.1093/applin/amu031
    https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/amu031 [Google Scholar]
  14. Birdsong, D., Gertken, L. M., & Amengual, M.
    (2012) Bilingual Language Profile: An easy-to-use instrument to assess bilingualism. COERLL, University of Texas at Austin. https://sites.la.utexas.edu/bilingual/
    [Google Scholar]
  15. Bolibaugh, C., Vanek, N., & Marsden, E. J.
    (2021) Towards a credibility revolution in bilingualism research: Open data and materials as stepping stones to more reproducible and replicable research. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, (), –. 10.1017/S1366728921000535
    https://doi.org/10.1017/S1366728921000535 [Google Scholar]
  16. Brauer, M., & Curtin, J. J.
    (2018) Linear mixed-effects models and the analysis of nonindependent data: A unified framework to analyze categorical and continuous independent variables that vary within-subjects and/or within-items. Psychological Methods, (), –. 10.1037/met0000159
    https://doi.org/10.1037/met0000159 [Google Scholar]
  17. Brown, B., Tusmagambet, B., Rahming, V., Tu, C.-Y., DeSalvo, M. B., & Wiener, S.
    (2023) Searching for the “native” speaker: A preregistered conceptual replication and extension of Reid, Trofimovich, and O’Brien (2019). Applied Psycholinguistics, (), –. 10.1017/S0142716423000127
    https://doi.org/10.1017/S0142716423000127 [Google Scholar]
  18. Bureau, U. S. C.
    (2022) The american community survey: 50 years of personal stories. U.S. Department of Commerce. https://www.census.gov/content/dam/Census/library/publications/2022/acs/acs-50.pdf
    [Google Scholar]
  19. Byrnes, H.
    (2016) Notes from the editor: Celebrating 100 years of” the modern language journal”. The Modern Language Journal, –. 10.1111/j.1540‑4781.2013.12051.x
    https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4781.2013.12051.x [Google Scholar]
  20. Cantone, K., Kupisch, T., Müller, N., & Schmitz, K.
    (2008) Rethinking language dominance in bilingual children. Linguistische Berichte, , –.
    [Google Scholar]
  21. Caramazza, A., Yeni-Komshian, G. H., Zurif, E. B., & Carbone, E.
    (1973) The acquisition of a new phonological contrast: The case of stop consonants in French-English bilinguals. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, (), –. 10.1121/1.1913594
    https://doi.org/10.1121/1.1913594 [Google Scholar]
  22. Carmichael, K.
    (2016) Place-linked expectations and listener awareness of regional accents. InA. M. Babel (Ed.), Awareness and control in sociolinguistic research (pp.–). Cambridge University Press. 10.1017/CBO9781139680448.009
    https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139680448.009 [Google Scholar]
  23. Casillas, J. V.
    (2021) Interlingual interactions elicit performance mismatches not “compromise” categories in early bilinguals: Evidence from meta-analysis and coronal stops. Languages, (), –. 10.3390/languages6010009
    https://doi.org/10.3390/languages6010009 [Google Scholar]
  24. Casillas, J. V., & Simonet, M.
    (2018) Perceptual categorization and bilingual language modes: Assessing the double phonemic boundary in early and late bilinguals. Journal of Phonetics, , –. 10.1016/j.wocn.2018.07.002
    https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wocn.2018.07.002 [Google Scholar]
  25. Chang, C. B.
    (2012) Rapid and multifaceted effects of second-language learning on first-language speech production. Journal of Phonetics, (), –. 10.1016/j.wocn.2011.10.007
    https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wocn.2011.10.007 [Google Scholar]
  26. (2019) Language change and linguistic inquiry in a world of multicompetence: Sustained phonetic drift and its implications for behavioral linguistic research. Journal of Phonetics, , –. 10.1016/j.wocn.2019.03.001
    https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wocn.2019.03.001 [Google Scholar]
  27. Coretta, S., Casillas, J. V., Roessig, S., Franke, M., Ahn, B., Al-Hoorie, A. H., Al-Tamimi, J., Alotaibi, N. E., AlShakhori, M. K., Altmiller, R. M., Arantes, P., Athanasopoulou, A., Baese-Berk, M. M., Bailey, G., Sangma, C. B. A., Beier, E. J., Benavides, G. M., Benker, N., BensonMeyer, E. P., … Roettger, T. B.
    (2023) Multidimensional signals and analytic flexibility: Estimating degrees of freedom in human-speech analyses. Advances in Methods and Practices in Psychological Science, (), –. 10.1177/25152459231162567
    https://doi.org/10.1177/25152459231162567 [Google Scholar]
  28. De Cat, C., Gusnanto, A., Kašćelan, D., Prévost, P., Serratrice, L., Tuller, L., & Unsworth, S.
    (2025) How detailed do measures of bilingual language experience need to be? A cost-benefit analysis using the Q-BEx questionnaire. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition. 10.1017/S1366728925100497
    https://doi.org/10.1017/S1366728925100497 [Google Scholar]
  29. Dunn, A. L., & Fox Tree, J. E.
    (2009) A quick, gradient bilingual dominance scale. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, (), –. 10.1017/S1366728909990113
    https://doi.org/10.1017/S1366728909990113 [Google Scholar]
  30. Filipović, L., & Hawkins, J. A.
    (2019) The Complex Adaptive System Principles model for bilingualism: Language interactions within and across bilingual minds. International Journal of Bilingualism, (), –. 10.1177/1367006918781076
    https://doi.org/10.1177/1367006918781076 [Google Scholar]
  31. Flege, J. E.
    (1995) Second language speech learning: Theory, findings, and problems. InW. Strange (Ed.), Speech perception and linguistic experience issues in cross-language research (pp.–). Timonium, MD: York Press.
    [Google Scholar]
  32. Flege, J. E., & Bohn, O.-S.
    (2021) The Revised Speech Learning Model (SLM-r). InR. Wayland (Ed.), Second language speech learning: Theoretical and empirical progress (pp.–). Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press. 10.1017/9781108886901.002
    https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108886901.002 [Google Scholar]
  33. Flege, J. E., & Eefting, W.
    (1987) Production and perception of English stops by native spanish speakers. Journal of Phonetics, , –. 10.1016/S0095‑4470(19)30538‑8
    https://doi.org/10.1016/S0095-4470(19)30538-8 [Google Scholar]
  34. (1988) Imitation of a VOT continuum by native speakers of english and spanish: Evidence for phonetic category formation. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, (), –. 10.1121/1.396115
    https://doi.org/10.1121/1.396115 [Google Scholar]
  35. Flege, J. E., MacKay, I. R. A., & Piske, T.
    (2002) Assessing bilingual dominance. Applied Psycholinguistics, (), –. 10.1017/S0142716402004046
    https://doi.org/10.1017/S0142716402004046 [Google Scholar]
  36. Freeman, M. R., Robinson Anthony, J. J., Marian, V., & Blumenfeld, H. K.
    (2022) Individual and sociolinguistic differences in language background predict stroop performance. Frontiers in Communication, , –. 10.3389/fcomm.2022.865965
    https://doi.org/10.3389/fcomm.2022.865965 [Google Scholar]
  37. Gomes, D. G.
    (2022) Should I use fixed effects or random effects when I have fewer than five levels of a grouping factor in a mixed-effects model?PeerJ, , –. 10.7717/peerj.12794
    https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.12794 [Google Scholar]
  38. Gorba, C., & Cebrian, J.
    (2023) The acquisition of L2 voiced stops by English learners of Spanish and Spanish learners of English. Speech Communication, , –. 10.1016/j.specom.2022.12.003
    https://doi.org/10.1016/j.specom.2022.12.003 [Google Scholar]
  39. Grosjean, F.
    (1989) Neurolinguists, beware! The bilingual is not two monolinguals in one person. Brain and Language, (), –. 10.1016/0093‑934X(89)90048‑5
    https://doi.org/10.1016/0093-934X(89)90048-5 [Google Scholar]
  40. (1997) The bilingual individual. Interpreting, (), –. 10.1075/intp.2.1‑2.07gro
    https://doi.org/10.1075/intp.2.1-2.07gro [Google Scholar]
  41. Gu, Y., Xie, X., & Kurumada, C.
    (2025) The accent atlas: A geolocation-based assessment of non-native accent familiarity and linguistic diversity. OSF Preprint. https://osf.io/gf9jy
    [Google Scholar]
  42. Hansen Edwards, J., Chan, K. L. R., Lam, T., & Wang, Q.
    (2021) Social factors and the teaching of pronunciation: What the research tells us. RELC Journal, (), –. 10.1177/0033688220960897
    https://doi.org/10.1177/0033688220960897 [Google Scholar]
  43. Hanzlı́ková, D., & Skarnitzl, R.
    (2017) Credibility of native and non-native speakers of English revisited: Do non-native listeners feel the same?Research in Language, (), –. 10.1515/rela‑2017‑0016
    https://doi.org/10.1515/rela-2017-0016 [Google Scholar]
  44. Hawkins, J., & Filipović, L.
    (2024) Bilingualism-induced language change: What can change, when, and why?Linguistics Vanguard, (), –. 10.1515/lingvan‑2023‑0089
    https://doi.org/10.1515/lingvan-2023-0089 [Google Scholar]
  45. Hazan, V. L., & Boulakia, G.
    (1993) Perception and production of a voicing contrast by French-English bilinguals. Language and Speech, (), –. 10.1177/002383099303600102
    https://doi.org/10.1177/002383099303600102 [Google Scholar]
  46. Jackson, S., & Denis, D.
    (2024) What I say, or how I say it? Ethnic accents and hiring evaluations in the Greater Toronto Area. Language, (), –. 10.1353/lan.2024.a929753
    https://doi.org/10.1353/lan.2024.a929753 [Google Scholar]
  47. Jenkins, J.
    (2005) Teaching pronunciation for English as a lingua franca: A sociopolitical perspective. InC. Gnutzmann & F. Intemann (Eds.), The globalisation of english and the english language classroom (pp.–). Gunter Narr Verlag Tübingen.
    [Google Scholar]
  48. Jiang, X., Gossack-Keenan, K., & Pell, M. D.
    (2020) To believe or not to believe? How voice and accent information in speech alter listener impressions of trust. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, (), –. 10.1177/1747021819865833
    https://doi.org/10.1177/1747021819865833 [Google Scholar]
  49. Kartushina, N., Frauenfelder, U. H., & Golestani, N.
    (2016) How and when does the second language influence the production of native speech sounds: A literature review. Language Learning, (), –. 10.1111/lang.12187
    https://doi.org/10.1111/lang.12187 [Google Scholar]
  50. Kartushina, N., & Martin, C. D.
    (2019) Third-language learning affects bilinguals’ production in both their native languages: A longitudinal study of dynamic changes in L1, L2 and L3 vowel production. Journal of Phonetics, , –. 10.1016/j.wocn.2019.100920
    https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wocn.2019.100920 [Google Scholar]
  51. Kelly, N.
    (2022) Change across time in L2 intonation vs. Segments: A longitudinal study of the English of Ole Gunnar Solskjaer. Languages, (), –. 10.3390/languages7030210
    https://doi.org/10.3390/languages7030210 [Google Scholar]
  52. Kornder, L., & Mennen, I.
    (2021) Longitudinal developments in bilingual second language acquisition and first language attrition of speech: The case of Arnold Schwarzenegger. Languages, (), –. 10.3390/languages6020061
    https://doi.org/10.3390/languages6020061 [Google Scholar]
  53. Kroll, J. F., & Bialystok, E.
    (2013) Understanding the consequences of bilingualism for language processing and cognition. Journal of Cognitive Psychology, (), –. 10.1080/20445911.2013.799170
    https://doi.org/10.1080/20445911.2013.799170 [Google Scholar]
  54. Kutlu, E., & Hayes-Harb, R.
    (2023) Towards a just and equitable applied psycholinguistics. Applied Psycholinguistics, (), –. 10.1017/S0142716423000280
    https://doi.org/10.1017/S0142716423000280 [Google Scholar]
  55. Leeuw, E. de
    (2019) Native speech plasticity in the German-English late bilingual Stefanie Graf: A longitudinal study over four decades. Journal of Phonetics, , –. 10.1016/j.wocn.2018.12.002
    https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wocn.2018.12.002 [Google Scholar]
  56. Leeuw, E. de, & Chang, C. B.
    (2023) Phonetic and phonological L1 attrition and drift in bilingual speech. InM. Amengual (Ed.), The cambridge handbook of bilingual phonetics and phonology. Cambridge University PressCambridge. 10.1017/9781009105767.033
    https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009105767.033 [Google Scholar]
  57. Lev-Ari, S., & Keysar, B.
    (2010) Why don’t we believe non-native speakers? The influence of accent on credibility. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, (), –. 10.1016/j.jesp.2010.05.025
    https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2010.05.025 [Google Scholar]
  58. Levis, J. M.
    (2005) Changing contexts and shifting paradigms in pronunciation teaching. TESOL Quarterly, (), –. 3588485
    https://doi.org/3588485 [Google Scholar]
  59. Li, P., Sepanski, S., & Zhao, X.
    (2006) Language history questionnaire: A web-based interface for bilingual research. Behavior Research Methods, , –. 10.3758/BF03192770
    https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03192770 [Google Scholar]
  60. Lim, V. P. C., Liow, S. J. R., Lincoln, M., Chan, Y. H., & Onslow, M.
    (2008) Determining language dominance in English-Mandarin bilinguals: Development of a self-report classification tool for clinical use. Applied Psycholinguistics, (), –. 10.1017/S0142716408080181
    https://doi.org/10.1017/S0142716408080181 [Google Scholar]
  61. Lindemann, S., & Subtirelu, N. C.
    (2013) Reliably biased: The role of listener expectation in the perception of second language speech. Language Learning, (), –. 10.1111/lang.12014
    https://doi.org/10.1111/lang.12014 [Google Scholar]
  62. Lorenzoni, A., Faccio, R., & Navarrete, E.
    (2024) Does foreign-accented speech affect credibility? Evidence from the illusory-truth paradigm. Journal of Cognition, (), . 10.5334/joc.353
    https://doi.org/10.5334/joc.353 [Google Scholar]
  63. Lozano-Argüelles, C., Arroyo, L. F., Rodrı́guez, N., López, E. M. D., Pozú, J. J. G., Markovits, J., Varela, J. P., Rocafiguera, N. de, & Casillas, J. V.
    (2021) Conceptually cued perceptual categorization in adult L2 learners. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, (), –. 10.1017/S0272263120000273
    https://doi.org/10.1017/S0272263120000273 [Google Scholar]
  64. Luk, G., & Bialystok, E.
    (2013) Bilingualism is not a categorical variable: Interaction between language proficiency and usage. Journal of Cognitive Psychology, (), –. 10.1080/20445911.2013.795574
    https://doi.org/10.1080/20445911.2013.795574 [Google Scholar]
  65. Marian, V., Blumenfeld, H. K., & Kaushanskaya, M.
    (2007) The Language Experience and Proficiency Questionnaire (LEAP-Q): Assessing language profiles in bilinguals and multilinguals. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, (), –. 10.1044/1092‑4388(2007/067)
    https://doi.org/10.1044/1092-4388(2007/067) [Google Scholar]
  66. Marsden, E., & Morgan-Short, K.
    (2023) (Why) are open research practices the future for the study of language learning?Language Learning, , –. 10.1111/lang.12568
    https://doi.org/10.1111/lang.12568 [Google Scholar]
  67. Mejı́as, H. A., Anderson-Mejı́as, P. L., & Carlson, R.
    (2003) Attitude update: Spanish on the South Texas border. Hispania, –. 10.2307/20062822
    https://doi.org/10.2307/20062822 [Google Scholar]
  68. Mendoza-Denton, N.
    (2014) Homegirls: Language and cultural practice among latina youth gangs. John Wiley & Sons. 10.1002/9780470693728
    https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470693728 [Google Scholar]
  69. Moranski, K., & Ziegler, N.
    (2021) A case for multisite second language acquisition research: Challenges, risks, and rewards. Language Learning, (), –. 10.1111/lang.12434
    https://doi.org/10.1111/lang.12434 [Google Scholar]
  70. Mora-Plaza, I., Saito, K., Suzukida, Y., Dewaele, J.-M., & Tierney, A.
    (2022) Tools for second language speech research and teaching. 10.17616/R31NJNAX
    https://doi.org/10.17616/R31NJNAX [Google Scholar]
  71. Morgan-Short, K., Marsden, E., Heil, J., Issa Ii, B. I., Leow, R. P., Mikhaylova, A., Mikołajczak, S., Moreno, N., Slabakova, R., & Szudarski, P.
    (2018) Multisite replication in second language acquisition research: Attention to form during listening and reading comprehension. Language Learning, (), –. 10.1111/lang.12292
    https://doi.org/10.1111/lang.12292 [Google Scholar]
  72. Olga, D., Celata, C., Natalia, K.,
    (2024) Native speech perception in the context of multilingualism and language learning. Languages, .
    [Google Scholar]
  73. Peña, E. D., Bedore, L. M., & Torres, J.
    (2021) Assessment of language proficiency and dominance in monolinguals and bilinguals. InW. S. Francis (Ed.), Bilingualism across the lifespan: Opportunities and challenges for cognitive research in a global society (pp.–). Routledge.
    [Google Scholar]
  74. Pliatsikas, C., DeLuca, V., & Voits, T.
    (2020) The many shades of bilingualism: Language experiences modulate adaptations in brain structure. Language Learning, (), –. 10.1111/lang.12386
    https://doi.org/10.1111/lang.12386 [Google Scholar]
  75. Plonsky, L.
    (2013) Study quality in SLA: An assessment of designs, analyses, and reporting practices in quantitative L2 research. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, (), –. 10.1017/S0272263113000399
    https://doi.org/10.1017/S0272263113000399 [Google Scholar]
  76. Potowski, K.
    (2012) Identity and heritage learners: Moving beyond essentializations. InS. M. Beaudrie & M. Fairclough (Eds.), Spanish as a heritage language in the United States: The state of the field (pp.–). Georgetown University Press.
    [Google Scholar]
  77. Potowski, K., & Torres, L.
    (2023) Spanish in chicago. Oxford University Press.
    [Google Scholar]
  78. Reed, P. E.
    (2020) Place and language: Links between speech, region, and connection to place. Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Cognitive Science, (), –. 10.1002/wcs.1524
    https://doi.org/10.1002/wcs.1524 [Google Scholar]
  79. Reid, K. T., Trofimovich, P., & O’Brien, M. G.
    (2019) Social attitudes and speech ratings: Effects of positive and negative bias on multiage listeners’ judgments of second language speech. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, (), –. 10.1017/S0272263118000244
    https://doi.org/10.1017/S0272263118000244 [Google Scholar]
  80. Roettger, T. B., Winter, B., & Baayen, H.
    (2019) Emergent data analysis in phonetic sciences: Towards pluralism and reproducibility. Journal of Phonetics, , –. 10.1016/j.wocn.2018.12.001
    https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wocn.2018.12.001 [Google Scholar]
  81. Sakai, M.
    (2018) Moving towards a bilingual baseline in second language phonetic research. Journal of Second Language Pronunciation, (), –. 10.1075/jslp.00002.sak
    https://doi.org/10.1075/jslp.00002.sak [Google Scholar]
  82. Sancier, M. L., & Fowler, C. A.
    (1997) Gestural drift in a bilingual speaker of Brazilian Portuguese and English. Journal of Phonetics, (), –. 10.1006/jpho.1997.0051
    https://doi.org/10.1006/jpho.1997.0051 [Google Scholar]
  83. Sankoff, G.
    (2002) Linguistic outcomes of language contact. InJ. K. Chambers, P. Trudgill, & N. Schilling-Estes (Eds.), The handbook of language variation and change (Vol., pp.–). Blackwell. 10.1002/9781118335598
    https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118335598 [Google Scholar]
  84. Simons, D. J., Shoda, Y., & Lindsay, D. S.
    (2017) Constraints on generality (COG): A proposed addition to all empirical papers. Perspectives on Psychological Science, (), –. 10.1177/1745691617708630
    https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691617708630 [Google Scholar]
  85. Sugden, N. A., & Moulson, M. C.
    (2015) Recruitment strategies should not be randomly selected: Empirically improving recruitment success and diversity in developmental psychology research. Frontiers in Psychology, , . 10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00523
    https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00523 [Google Scholar]
  86. Tobin, S. J., Nam, H., & Fowler, C. A.
    (2017) Phonetic drift in Spanish-English bilinguals: Experiment and a self-organizing model. Journal of Phonetics, , –. 10.1016/j.wocn.2017.05.006
    https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wocn.2017.05.006 [Google Scholar]
  87. Tomé Lourido, G., & Evans, B.
    (2019) The effects of language dominance switch in bilinguals: Galician new speakers’ speech production and perception. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, (), –. 10.1017/S1366728918000603
    https://doi.org/10.1017/S1366728918000603 [Google Scholar]
  88. Velázquez, I.
    (2013) Individual discourse, language ideology and Spanish transmission in El Paso, Texas. Critical Discourse Studies, (), –. 10.1080/17405904.2013.789975
    https://doi.org/10.1080/17405904.2013.789975 [Google Scholar]
  89. Weinreich, U.
    (1968) Languages in contact: Findings and problems. Mouton de Gruyter. 10.1515/9783110802177
    https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110802177 [Google Scholar]
  90. Wolfram, W., Carter, P., & Moriello, B.
    (2004) Emerging Hispanic English: New dialect formation in the American South. Journal of Sociolinguistics, (), –. 10.1111/j.1467‑9841.2004.00264.x
    https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9841.2004.00264.x [Google Scholar]
  91. Yao, Y., & Chang, C. B.
    (2016) On the cognitive basis of contact-induced sound change: Vowel merger reversal in Shanghainese. Language, (), –. 10.1353/lan.2016.0031
    https://doi.org/10.1353/lan.2016.0031 [Google Scholar]
  92. Alvord, S. M., & Rogers, B. M. A.
    (2014) Miami-Cuban Spanish vowels in contact. Sociolinguistic Studies, (), –. 10.1558/sols.v8i1.139
    https://doi.org/10.1558/sols.v8i1.139 [Google Scholar]
  93. Austin, P. C., & Leckie, G.
    (2018) The effect of number of clusters and cluster size on statistical power and Type I error rates when testing random effects variance components in multilevel linear and logistic regression models. Journal of Statistical Computation and Simulation, (), –. 10.1080/00949655.2018.1504945
    https://doi.org/10.1080/00949655.2018.1504945 [Google Scholar]
  94. Birdsong, D., Gertken, L. M., & Amengual, M.
    (2012) Bilingual Language Profile: An easy-to-use instrument to assess bilingualism. COERLL, University of Texas at Austin. https://sites.la.utexas.edu/bilingual/
    [Google Scholar]
  95. Brice, A. E., Carson, C. K., & Dennis O’Brien, J.
    (2009) Spanish-English articulation and phonology of 4-and 5-year-old preschool children: An initial investigation. Communication Disorders Quarterly, (), –. 10.1177/1525740108327447
    https://doi.org/10.1177/1525740108327447 [Google Scholar]
  96. Byers, E., & Yavas, M.
    (2017) Vowel reduction in word-final position by early and late Spanish-English bilinguals. PloS ONE, (), –. 10.1371/journal.pone.0175226
    https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0175226 [Google Scholar]
  97. Carter, P. M., López Valdez, L., & Sims, N.
    (2020) New dialect formation through language contact: Vocalic and prosodic developments in Miami English. American Speech, (), –. 10.1215/00031283‑7726313
    https://doi.org/10.1215/00031283-7726313 [Google Scholar]
  98. Christoffersen, K. O.
    (2014) Does child code-switching demonstrate communicative competence?: A comparison of simultaneous and sequential bilinguals. Journal of Second Language Acquisition and Teaching: Arizona Working Papers in SLAT, , –.
    [Google Scholar]
  99. DuBord, E. M.
    (2004) Gender assignment to english words in the spanish of southern arizona [PhD thesis]. University of Arizona.
    [Google Scholar]
  100. Dunn, A. L., & Fox Tree, J. E.
    (2009) A quick, gradient bilingual dominance scale. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, (), –. 10.1017/S1366728909990113
    https://doi.org/10.1017/S1366728909990113 [Google Scholar]
  101. Flege, J. E., & Hammond, R. M.
    (1982) Mimicry of non-distinctive phonetic differences between language varieties. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, (), –. 10.1017/S0272263100004563
    https://doi.org/10.1017/S0272263100004563 [Google Scholar]
  102. Gelman, A., & Hill, J.
    (2007) Data analysis using regression and multilevel/hierarchical models. Cambridge University Press. 10.1017/CBO9780511790942
    https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511790942 [Google Scholar]
  103. Gertken, L. M., Amengual, M., & Birdsong, D.
    (2014) Assessing language dominance with the Bilingual Language Profile. InP. Leclercq, A. Edmonds, & H. Hilton (Eds.), Measuring L2 proficiency: Perspectives from SLA (pp.–). Multilingual Matters. 10.21832/9781783092291‑014
    https://doi.org/10.21832/9781783092291-014 [Google Scholar]
  104. Gomes, D. G.
    (2022) Should I use fixed effects or random effects when I have fewer than five levels of a grouping factor in a mixed-effects model?PeerJ, , –. 10.7717/peerj.12794
    https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.12794 [Google Scholar]
  105. Gonzales, K., & Lotto, A. J.
    (2013) A bafri, un pafri: Bilinguals’ pseudoword identifications support language-specific phonetic systems. Psychological Science, (), –. 10.1177/0956797613486485
    https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797613486485 [Google Scholar]
  106. Levshina, N.
    (2022) Comparing Bayesian and frequentist models of language variation: The case of help + (to-)infinitive. InO. Schützler & J. Schlüter (Eds.), Data and methods in corpus linguistics: Comparative approaches (pp.–). Cambridge University Press.
    [Google Scholar]
  107. Lim, V. P. C., Liow, S. J. R., Lincoln, M., Chan, Y. H., & Onslow, M.
    (2008) Determining language dominance in English-Mandarin bilinguals: Development of a self-report classification tool for clinical use. Applied Psycholinguistics, (), –. 10.1017/S0142716408080181
    https://doi.org/10.1017/S0142716408080181 [Google Scholar]
  108. Lynn, K.
    (1940) A phonetic analysis of the English spoken by Mexican children in the elementary schools of Arizona [PhD thesis]. Louisiana State University Historical Dissertations; Theses.
  109. Marian, V., Blumenfeld, H. K., & Kaushanskaya, M.
    (2007) The Language Experience and Proficiency Questionnaire (LEAP-Q): Assessing language profiles in bilinguals and multilinguals. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, (), –. 10.1044/1092‑4388(2007/067)
    https://doi.org/10.1044/1092-4388(2007/067) [Google Scholar]
  110. Nagle, C.
    (2024) A guide to quantitative research methods in second language pronunciation. Routledge.
    [Google Scholar]
  111. Nalborczyk, L., Batailler, C., Lœvenbruck, H., Vilain, A., & Bürkner, P.-C.
    (2019) An introduction to Bayesian multilevel models using brms: A case study of gender effects on vowel variability in Standard Indonesian. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, (), –. 10.1044/2018_JSLHR‑S‑18‑0006
    https://doi.org/10.1044/2018_JSLHR-S-18-0006 [Google Scholar]
  112. Peña, E. D., Bedore, L. M., & Torres, J.
    (2021) Assessment of language proficiency and dominance in monolinguals and bilinguals. InW. S. Francis (Ed.), Bilingualism across the lifespan: Opportunities and challenges for cognitive research in a global society (pp.–). Routledge.
    [Google Scholar]
  113. Rodríguez-Guerra, M., Colina, S., & Fabiano-Smith, L.
    (2023) Interaction in bilingual early speech acquisition: Acceleration in the bilingual acquisition of English liquids for English-Spanish bilinguals. Lingua, , –. 10.1016/j.lingua.2022.103438
    https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lingua.2022.103438 [Google Scholar]
  114. Vasishth, S., Nicenboim, B., Beckman, M. E., Li, F., & Kong, E. J.
    (2018) Bayesian data analysis in the phonetic sciences: A tutorial introduction. Journal of Phonetics, , –. 10.1016/j.wocn.2018.07.008
    https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wocn.2018.07.008 [Google Scholar]
  115. Winter, B.
    (2019) Statistics for linguists: An introduction using R. Routledge.
    [Google Scholar]
/content/journals/10.1075/jslp.25016.nag
Loading
/content/journals/10.1075/jslp.25016.nag
Loading

Data & Media loading...

  • Article Type: Research Article
Keywords: multisite research ; open science ; big team science ; bilingualism
This is a required field
Please enter a valid email address
Approval was successful
Invalid data
An Error Occurred
Approval was partially successful, following selected items could not be processed due to error