1887
image of Fluency, prosody, and gesture

Abstract

This article reviews previous literature on the concepts of fluency and prosody to examine how these two concepts interact in both foreign language (L2) learners’ productions and native speaker (L1) perceptions of L2 speech. First, it presents a comprehensive overview of prosodic features of speech that play a role in L2 production (utterance fluency). Next, it explores the relationship between perceived fluency and other perception measures known to be influenced by prosodic accuracy, such as accentedness, comprehensibility, and intelligibility. Finally, it examines the influence of embodied visual information (e.g., hand, arm, and head gestures or facial expressions) on the production and perception of prosody and fluency in the L2. As such, it contributes to our understanding of the interplay between fluency and prosodic accuracy in both spoken and multimodal communication, and informs L2 learners and teachers on the potential benefits of embodiment for L2 prosody and fluency.

Available under the CC BY 4.0 license.
Loading

Article metrics loading...

/content/journals/10.1075/jslp.25053.van
2026-04-23
2026-05-11
Loading full text...

Full text loading...

/deliver/fulltext/10.1075/jslp.25053.van/jslp.25053.van.html?itemId=/content/journals/10.1075/jslp.25053.van&mimeType=html&fmt=ahah

References

  1. Alibali, M. W., Kita, S., & Young, A. J.
    (2000) Gesture and the process of speech production: We think, therefore we gesture. Language and Cognitive Processes, (), –. 10.1080/016909600750040571
    https://doi.org/10.1080/016909600750040571 [Google Scholar]
  2. Anderson-Hsieh, J., Johnson, R., & Koehler, K.
    (1992) The relationship between native speaker judgments of nonnative pronunciation and deviance in segmentals, prosody, and syllable structure. Language Learning, (), –. 10.1111/j.1467‑1770.1992.tb01043.x
    https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-1770.1992.tb01043.x [Google Scholar]
  3. Arvaniti, A.
    (2020) The phonetics of prosody. InS. Calhoun (Ed.). Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Linguistics. 10.1093/acrefore/9780199384655.013.411
    https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780199384655.013.411 [Google Scholar]
  4. Arvaniti, A., & Rodriquez, T.
    (2013) The role of rhythm class, speaking rate, and F 0 in language discrimination. Laboratory Phonology, (), –. 10.1515/lp‑2013‑0002
    https://doi.org/10.1515/lp-2013-0002 [Google Scholar]
  5. Aziz, J. R., & Nicoladis, E.
    (2019) “My French is rusty”: Proficiency and bilingual gesture use in a majority English community. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, (), –. 10.1017/S1366728918000639
    https://doi.org/10.1017/S1366728918000639 [Google Scholar]
  6. Baills, F., Alazard-Guiu, C., Prieto, P.
    (2022) Embodied prosodic training helps improve accentedness and suprasegmental accuracy, Applied Linguistics, (), –, 10.1093/applin/amac010
    https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/amac010 [Google Scholar]
  7. Baills, F., Suarez-Gonzalez, N., Gonzalez-Fuente, S., & Prieto, P.
    (2019) Observing and producing pitch gestures facilitates the learning of Mandarin Chinese tones and words. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, (), –. 10.1017/S0272263118000074
    https://doi.org/10.1017/S0272263118000074 [Google Scholar]
  8. Billot-Vasquez, K., Lian, Z., Hirata, Y., & Kelly, S. D.
    (2020) Emblem gestures improve perception and evaluation of non-native speech. Frontiers in Psychology, , . 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.574418
    https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.574418 [Google Scholar]
  9. Bosker, H. R., Hoetjes, M., Hustin, D., Pouw, W., & Van Maastricht, L.
    (2026) Foreign language learners show a kinematic accent in their co-speech hand movements. Open Mind, , –. 10.1162/OPMI.a.321
    https://doi.org/10.1162/OPMI.a.321 [Google Scholar]
  10. Bosker, H. R., Pinget, A. F., Quené, H., Sanders, T., & De Jong, N. H.
    (2013) What makes speech sound fluent? The contributions of pauses, speed and repairs. Language Testing, (), –. 10.1177/0265532212455394
    https://doi.org/10.1177/0265532212455394 [Google Scholar]
  11. Bosker, H. R., Quené, H., Sanders, T., & De Jong, N. H.
    (2014) The perception of fluency in native and nonnative speech. Language Learning, (), –. 10.1111/lang.12067
    https://doi.org/10.1111/lang.12067 [Google Scholar]
  12. Cavicchio, F., & Grazia Busà, M.
    (2023) Lending a hand to speech: Gestures help fluency and increase pitch in second language speakers. Language, Interaction and Acquisition, (), –. 10.1075/lia.22023.cav
    https://doi.org/10.1075/lia.22023.cav [Google Scholar]
  13. Chau, T., & Huensch, A.
    (2025) The relationships among L2 fluency, intelligibility, comprehensibility, and accentedness: A meta-analysis. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, (), –. 10.1017/S0272263125000014
    https://doi.org/10.1017/S0272263125000014 [Google Scholar]
  14. Chau, T., Huensch, A., Hoang, Y. K., & Chau, H. T.
    (2022) The effects of L2 pronunciation instruction on EFL learners’ intelligibility and fluency in spontaneous speech. Teaching English as a Second Language Electronic Journal, . 10.55593/ej.25100a7
    https://doi.org/10.55593/ej.25100a7 [Google Scholar]
  15. Cucchiarini, C., Strik, H., & Boves, L.
    (2002) Quantitative assessment of second language learners’ fluency: Comparisons between read and spontaneous speech. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, (), –. 10.1121/1.1471894
    https://doi.org/10.1121/1.1471894 [Google Scholar]
  16. Cutler, A., Dahan, D., & Van Donselaar, W.
    (1997) Prosody in the comprehension of spoken language: A literature review. Language and Speech, (), –. 10.1177/002383099704000203
    https://doi.org/10.1177/002383099704000203 [Google Scholar]
  17. Cravotta, A., Busà, M. G., & Prieto, P.
    (2019) Effects of encouraging the use of gestures on speech. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, (), –. 10.1044/2019_JSLHR‑S‑18‑0493
    https://doi.org/10.1044/2019_JSLHR-S-18-0493 [Google Scholar]
  18. Cravotta, A., Prieto, P., & Busà, M. G.
    (2021) Exploring the effects of restraining the use of gestures on narrative speech. Speech Communication, , –. 10.1016/j.specom.2021.09.005
    https://doi.org/10.1016/j.specom.2021.09.005 [Google Scholar]
  19. Cruttenden, A.
    (1993) The de-accenting and re-accenting of repeated lexical items. InD. House & P. Touati (Eds.), Working Papers: ESCA Workshop on Prosody (Vol., pp.–). Department of Linguistics and Phonetics, Lund University.
    [Google Scholar]
  20. De Jong, N. H.
    (2023) Fluency in Speaking as a Dynamic Construct. Language Teaching Research Quarterly, , –. 10.32038/ltrq.2023.37.09
    https://doi.org/10.32038/ltrq.2023.37.09 [Google Scholar]
  21. De Jong, N. H., Groenhout, R., Schoonen, R., & Hulstijn, J. H.
    (2015) Second language fluency: Speaking style or proficiency? Correcting measures of second language fluency for first language behavior. Applied Psycholinguistics, (), –. 10.1017/S0142716413000210
    https://doi.org/10.1017/S0142716413000210 [Google Scholar]
  22. Derwing, T. M., & Munro, M. J.
    (1997) Accent, intelligibility, and comprehensibility: Evidence from four L1s. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, (), –. 10.1017/S0272263197001010
    https://doi.org/10.1017/S0272263197001010 [Google Scholar]
  23. (2005) Second language accent and pronunciation teaching: A research-based approach. TESOL Quarterly, (), –. 10.2307/3588486
    https://doi.org/10.2307/3588486 [Google Scholar]
  24. Derwing, T. M., Munro, M. J., & Thomson, R. I.
    (2008) A longitudinal study of ESL learners’ fluency and comprehensibility development. Applied Linguistics, (), –. 10.1093/applin/amm041
    https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/amm041 [Google Scholar]
  25. Derwing, T. M., Munro, M. J., Thomson, R. I., & Rossiter, M. J.
    (2009) The relationship between L1 fluency and L2 fluency development. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, , –. 10.1017/S0272263109990015
    https://doi.org/10.1017/S0272263109990015 [Google Scholar]
  26. Derwing, T. M., Munro, M. J., & Wiebe, G.
    (1998) Evidence in favor of a broad framework for pronunciation instruction. Language Learning, (), –. 10.1111/0023‑8333.00047
    https://doi.org/10.1111/0023-8333.00047 [Google Scholar]
  27. Derwing, T. M., & Rossiter, M. J.
    (2002) ESL learners’ perceptions of their pronunciation needs and strategies. System, (), –. 10.1016/S0346‑251X(02)00012‑X
    https://doi.org/10.1016/S0346-251X(02)00012-X [Google Scholar]
  28. (2003) The effects of pronunciation instruction on the accuracy, fluency, and complexity of L2 accented speech. Applied Language Learning, (), –.
    [Google Scholar]
  29. Derwing, T. M., Rossiter, M. J., Munro, M. J., & Thomson, R. I.
    (2004) Second language fluency: Judgments on different tasks. Language Learning, (), –. 10.1111/j.1467‑9922.2004.00282.x
    https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9922.2004.00282.x [Google Scholar]
  30. Drijvers, L., & Özyürek, A.
    (2017) Visual context enhanced: The joint contribution of iconic gestures and visible speech to degraded speech comprehension. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, (), –. 10.1044/2016_JSLHR‑H‑16‑0101
    https://doi.org/10.1044/2016_JSLHR-H-16-0101 [Google Scholar]
  31. (2020) Non-native listeners benefit less from gestures and visible speech than native listeners during degraded speech comprehension. Language and Speech, (), –. 10.1177/0023830919831311
    https://doi.org/10.1177/0023830919831311 [Google Scholar]
  32. Edmunds, P.
    (2009) ESL speakers’ production of English lexical stress: The effect of variation in acoustic correlates on perceived intelligibility and nativeness. [Doctoral dissertation, The University of New Mexico].
  33. Eng, K., Hannah, B., Leong, L., & Wang, Y.
    (2013) Can co-speech hand gestures facilitate learning of non-native tones?. Proceedings of Meetings on Acoustics, (), . 10.1121/1.4799746
    https://doi.org/10.1121/1.4799746 [Google Scholar]
  34. Fraser, K., Mora, J. C., & Ortega, M.
    (2026) Examining the relationship between speech rhythm, fluency measures and comprehensibility ratings in L2 English speech. Journal of Second Language Pronunciation. 10.1075/jslp.25052.fra
    https://doi.org/10.1075/jslp.25052.fra [Google Scholar]
  35. Freed, B. F.
    (1995) What makes us think that students who study abroad become fluent?. InB. Freed (Ed.). Second language acquisition in a study abroad context (pp.–). John Benjamins Publishing Company. 10.1075/sibil.9.09fre
    https://doi.org/10.1075/sibil.9.09fre [Google Scholar]
  36. Gluhareva, D., & Prieto, P.
    (2017) Training with rhythmic beat gestures benefits L2 pronunciation in discourse-demanding situations. Language Teaching Research, (), –. 10.1177/1362168816651463
    https://doi.org/10.1177/1362168816651463 [Google Scholar]
  37. Götz, S.
    (2013) Fluency in native and nonnative English speech. John Benjamins Publishing Company. 10.1075/scl.53
    https://doi.org/10.1075/scl.53 [Google Scholar]
  38. Graziano, M., & Gullberg, M.
    (2018) When speech stops, gesture stops: Evidence from developmental and crosslinguistic comparisons. Frontiers in Psychology, (). 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00879
    https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00879 [Google Scholar]
  39. Gregersen, T. S.
    (2005) Nonverbal cues: Clues to the detection of foreign language anxiety. Foreign Language Annals, (), –. 10.1111/j.1944‑9720.2005.tb02225.x
    https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1944-9720.2005.tb02225.x [Google Scholar]
  40. Guion, S. G., Harada, T., & Clark, J. J.
    (2004) Early and late Spanish–English bilinguals’ acquisition of English word stress patterns. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, (), –. 10.1017/S1366728904001592
    https://doi.org/10.1017/S1366728904001592 [Google Scholar]
  41. Gullberg, M.
    (2022) The relationship between gestures and speaking in L2 learning. InT. Derwing, M. Munro, & R. Thomsom (Eds.). The Routledge handbook of second language acquisition and speaking (pp.–). Routledge. 10.4324/9781003022497‑33
    https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003022497-33 [Google Scholar]
  42. Hahn, L. D.
    (2004) Primary stress and intelligibility: Research to motivate the teaching of suprasegmentals. TESOL Quarterly, (), –. 10.2307/3588378
    https://doi.org/10.2307/3588378 [Google Scholar]
  43. Hannah, B., Wang, Y., Jongman, A., Sereno, J. A., Cao, J., & Nie, Y.
    (2017) Cross-modal association between auditory and visuospatial information in Mandarin tone perception in noise by native and non-native perceivers. Frontiers in Psychology, , . 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.02051
    https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.02051 [Google Scholar]
  44. Hieke, A. E.
    (1984) Linking as a marker of fluent speech. Language and Speech, (), –. 10.1177/002383098402700405
    https://doi.org/10.1177/002383098402700405 [Google Scholar]
  45. Hirata, Y., & Kelly, S. D.
    (2010) Effects of lips and hands on auditory learning of second-language speech sounds. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, (), –. 10.1044/1092‑4388(2009/08‑0243)
    https://doi.org/10.1044/1092-4388(2009/08-0243) [Google Scholar]
  46. Isaacs, T., & Thomson, R. I.
    (2013) Rater experience, rating scale length, and judgments of L2 pronunciation: Revisiting research conventions. Language Assessment Quarterly, (), –. 10.1080/15434303.2013.769545
    https://doi.org/10.1080/15434303.2013.769545 [Google Scholar]
  47. Jongman, A., & Tremblay, A.
    (2021) Word prosody in second language acquisition. InC. Gussenhoven, & A. Chen (Eds.), The Oxford Handbook of Language Prosody (pp.–). Oxford University Press. 10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198832232.013.39
    https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198832232.013.39 [Google Scholar]
  48. Kallio, H., Kautonen, M., & Kuronen, M.
    (2023) Prosody and fluency of Finland Swedish as a second language: Investigating global parameters for automated speaking assessment. Speech Communication, , –. 10.1016/j.specom.2023.02.003
    https://doi.org/10.1016/j.specom.2023.02.003 [Google Scholar]
  49. Kang, O.
    (2010) Relative salience of suprasegmental features on judgments of L2 comprehensibility and accentedness. System, (), –. 10.1016/j.system.2010.01.005
    https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2010.01.005 [Google Scholar]
  50. Kelly, S., Bailey, A., & Hirata, Y.
    (2017) Metaphoric gestures facilitate perception of intonation more than length in auditory judgments of non-native phonemic contrasts. Collabra: Psychology, (), . 10.1525/collabra.76
    https://doi.org/10.1525/collabra.76 [Google Scholar]
  51. Kim, Y. L., Liu, C., Trofimovich, P., & McDonough, K.
    (2024) Is nonverbal behavior during conversation related to perceived fluency. TESOL Journal, (), . 10.1002/tesj.795
    https://doi.org/10.1002/tesj.795 [Google Scholar]
  52. Kısa, Y. D., Goldin-Meadow, S., & Casasanto, D.
    (2022) Do gestures really facilitate speech production?. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, (), . 10.1037/xge0001135
    https://doi.org/10.1037/xge0001135 [Google Scholar]
  53. Kita, S.
    (2000) How representational gestures help speaking. InD. McNeill (Ed.). Language and Gesture (pp.–). Cambridge University Press. 10.1017/CBO9780511620850.011
    https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511620850.011 [Google Scholar]
  54. Kormos, J., & Dénes, M.
    (2004) Exploring measures and perceptions of fluency in the speech of second language learners, System, (), –, 10.1016/j.system.2004.01.001
    https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2004.01.001 [Google Scholar]
  55. Kosmala, L.
    (2024) Beyond Disfluency: The interplay of speech, gesture, and interaction. John Benjamins Publishing Company. 10.1075/ais.11
    https://doi.org/10.1075/ais.11 [Google Scholar]
  56. Krauss, R. M., Chen, Y., & Gottesman, R. F.
    (2000) Lexical gestures and lexical access: a process. InD. McNeill (Ed.). Language and Gesture (pp.–). Cambridge University Press. 10.1017/CBO9780511620850.017
    https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511620850.017 [Google Scholar]
  57. Ladd, D. R.
    (2008) Intonational phonology (2nd edition). Cambridge University Press. 10.1017/CBO9780511808814
    https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511808814 [Google Scholar]
  58. Lennon, P.
    (1990) Investigating fluency in EFL: A quantitative approach. Language Learning, (), –. 10.1111/j.1467‑1770.1990.tb00669.x
    https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-1770.1990.tb00669.x [Google Scholar]
  59. Li, P., Baills, F., & Prieto, P.
    (2020) Observing and producing durational hand gestures facilitates the pronunciation of novel vowel-length contrasts. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, (), –. 10.1017/S0272263120000054
    https://doi.org/10.1017/S0272263120000054 [Google Scholar]
  60. Li, A., & Post, B.
    (2014) L2 acquisition of prosodic properties of speech rhythm: Evidence from L1 Mandarin and German learners of English. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, (), –. 10.1017/S0272263113000752
    https://doi.org/10.1017/S0272263113000752 [Google Scholar]
  61. Lin, Y.-L.
    (2020) A helping hand for thinking and speaking: Effects of gesturing and task planning on second language narrative discourse. System, , 102243. 10.1016/j.system.2020.102243
    https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2020.102243 [Google Scholar]
  62. Llanes-Coromina, J., Vilà-Giménez, I., Kushch, O., Borràs-Comes, J., & Prieto, P.
    (2018) Beat gestures help preschoolers recall and comprehend discourse information. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, , –. 10.1016/j.jecp.2018.02.004
    https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2018.02.004 [Google Scholar]
  63. Ma, S., & Jin, G.
    (2022) The relationship between different types of co-speech gestures and L2 speech performance. Frontiers in Psychology, , . 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.941114
    https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.941114 [Google Scholar]
  64. Ma, S., Jin, G., & Barlow, M.
    (2021) Representational gestures correlated with meaning-associated aspects of L2 speech performance. Gesture, (), –. 10.1075/gest.19017.ma
    https://doi.org/10.1075/gest.19017.ma [Google Scholar]
  65. Magen, H. S.
    (1998) The perception of foreign-accented speech. Journal of Phonetics, (), –. 10.1006/jpho.1998.0081
    https://doi.org/10.1006/jpho.1998.0081 [Google Scholar]
  66. Mareüil, P. B. D., & Vieru-Dimulescu, B.
    (2006) The contribution of prosody to the perception of foreign accent. Phonetica, (), –. 10.1159/000097308
    https://doi.org/10.1159/000097308 [Google Scholar]
  67. McCafferty, S. G.
    (2002) Gesture and creating zones of proximal development for second language learning. The Modern Language Journal, (), –. 10.1111/1540‑4781.00144
    https://doi.org/10.1111/1540-4781.00144 [Google Scholar]
  68. Mennen, I.
    (2004) Bi-directional interference in the intonation of Dutch speakers of Greek. Journal of Phonetics, (), –. 10.1016/j.wocn.2004.02.002
    https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wocn.2004.02.002 [Google Scholar]
  69. Morett, L. M., & Chang, L. Y.
    (2015) Emphasising sound and meaning: Pitch gestures enhance Mandarin lexical tone acquisition. Language, Cognition and Neuroscience, (), –. 10.1080/23273798.2014.923105
    https://doi.org/10.1080/23273798.2014.923105 [Google Scholar]
  70. Mori, J., & Hayashi, M.
    (2006) The achievement of intersubjectivity through embodied completions: A study of interactions between first and second language speakers. Applied Linguistics, (), –. 10.1093/applin/aml014
    https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/aml014 [Google Scholar]
  71. Munro, M. J., & Derwing, T. M.
    (2001) Modeling perceptions of the accentedness and comprehensibility of L2 speech: The role of speaking rate. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, (), –. 10.1017/S0272263101004016
    https://doi.org/10.1017/S0272263101004016 [Google Scholar]
  72. (2015) A prospectus for pronunciation research in the 21st century: A point of view. Journal of Second Language Pronunciation, (), –. 10.1075/jslp.1.1.01mun
    https://doi.org/10.1075/jslp.1.1.01mun [Google Scholar]
  73. (2020) Foreign accent, comprehensibility and intelligibility, redux. Journal of Second Language Pronunciation, , –. 10.1075/jslp.20038.mun
    https://doi.org/10.1075/jslp.20038.mun [Google Scholar]
  74. Nagpal, J., Nicoladis, E., & Marentette, P.
    (2011) Predicting individual differences in L2 speakers’ gestures. International Journal of Bilingualism, (), –. 10.1177/1367006910381195
    https://doi.org/10.1177/1367006910381195 [Google Scholar]
  75. Nazzi, T., & Ramus, F.
    (2003) Perception and acquisition of linguistic rhythm by infants. Speech Communication, (), –. 10.1016/S0167‑6393(02)00106‑1
    https://doi.org/10.1016/S0167-6393(02)00106-1 [Google Scholar]
  76. Nguyen, M. H.
    (2016) A micro-analysis of embodiments and speech in the pronunciation instruction of one ESL teacher. Issues in Applied Linguistics, . 10.5070/L4200024274
    https://doi.org/10.5070/L4200024274 [Google Scholar]
  77. O’Brien, M. G.
    (2022) Making the teaching of suprasegmentals accessible. InJ. Levis, T. M. Derwing, & S. Sonsaat-Hegelheimer (Eds.). Second language pronunciation: Bridging the gap between research and teaching (pp.–). John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 10.1002/9781394259663.ch5
    https://doi.org/10.1002/9781394259663.ch5 [Google Scholar]
  78. Ortín, R., & Simonet, M.
    (2023) Perceptual sensitivity to stress in native English speakers learning Spanish as a second language. Laboratory Phonology, (), –. 10.16995/labphon.7978
    https://doi.org/10.16995/labphon.7978 [Google Scholar]
  79. Özer, D., & Göksun, T.
    (2020) Gesture use and processing: A review on individual differences in cognitive resources. Frontiers in Psychology, , . 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.573555
    https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.573555 [Google Scholar]
  80. Pang, F., & Skehan, P.
    (2014) Self-reported planning behaviour and second language performance in narrative retelling. InP. Skehan (Ed.), Processing perspectives on task performance (pp.–). John Benjamins Publishing Company. 10.1075/tblt.5.04pan
    https://doi.org/10.1075/tblt.5.04pan [Google Scholar]
  81. Peltonen, P.
    (2020) Gestures as fluency-enhancing resources in L2 interaction: A case study on multimodal fluency. InP. Lintunen, M. Mutta, and P. Peltonen (Eds.) Fluency in L2 learning and use (pp.–). De Gruyter. 10.21832/9781788926317
    https://doi.org/10.21832/9781788926317 [Google Scholar]
  82. Peltonen, P., Kosmala, L., Götz, S., & Lintunen, P.
    (2023) The interplay between speech fluency and gesture in L1 Finnish and L2 English task-based interactions. InDisfluency in Spontaneous Speech (DiSS) Workshop 2023 (pp.–). ISCA. 10.21437/DiSS.2023‑2
    https://doi.org/10.21437/DiSS.2023-2 [Google Scholar]
  83. Peltonen, P., Olkkonen, S., Szyszka, M. & Lintunen, P.
    (2025) L2 repair fluency through the lenses of L1 repair fluency, cognitive fluency, and language anxiety. Applied Linguistics Review, (), –. 10.1515/applirev‑2023‑0011
    https://doi.org/10.1515/applirev-2023-0011 [Google Scholar]
  84. Pinget, A. F., Bosker, H. R., Quené, H., & De Jong, N. H.
    (2014) Native speakers’ perceptions of fluency and accent in L2 speech. Language Testing, (), –. 10.1177/0265532214526177
    https://doi.org/10.1177/0265532214526177 [Google Scholar]
  85. Polyanskaya, L., Ordin, M., & Busa, M. G.
    (2017) Relative salience of speech rhythm and speech rate on perceived foreign accent in a second language. Language and Speech, (), –. 10.1177/0023830916648720
    https://doi.org/10.1177/0023830916648720 [Google Scholar]
  86. Pouw, W., De Jonge-Hoekstra, L., Harrison, S. J., Paxton, A., & Dixon, J. A.
    (2021) Gesture–speech physics in fluent speech and rhythmic upper limb movements. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, (), –. 10.1111/nyas.14532
    https://doi.org/10.1111/nyas.14532 [Google Scholar]
  87. Pouw, W., Harrison, S. J., Esteve-Gibert, N., & Dixon, J. A.
    (2020) Energy flows in gesture-speech physics: The respiratory-vocal system and its coupling with hand gestures. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, (), –. 10.1121/10.0001730
    https://doi.org/10.1121/10.0001730 [Google Scholar]
  88. Ramírez Verdugo, M. D.
    (2006) Prosodic realization of focus in the discourse of Spanish learners and English native speakers. Estudios Ingleses de la Universidad Complutense, , –.
    [Google Scholar]
  89. Ramírez Verdugo, M. D., & Romero Trillo, J.
    (2005) The pragmatic function of intonation in L2 discourse: English tag questions used by Spanish speakers. Intercultural Pragmatics(), –. 10.1515/iprg.2005.2.2.151
    https://doi.org/10.1515/iprg.2005.2.2.151 [Google Scholar]
  90. Ramus, F., Nespor, M., & Mehler, J.
    (1999) Correlates of linguistic rhythm in the speech signal. Cognition, (), –. 10.1016/S0010‑0277(99)00058‑X
    https://doi.org/10.1016/S0010-0277(99)00058-X [Google Scholar]
  91. Rauscher, F. H., Krauss, R. M., & Chen, Y.
    (1996) Gesture, speech, and lexical access: The role of lexical movements in speech production. Psychological Science, (), –. 10.1111/j.1467‑9280.1996.tb00364.x
    https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.1996.tb00364.x [Google Scholar]
  92. Rasier, L., & Hiligsmann, P.
    (2009) Exploring the L1-L2 relationship in the L2 acquisition of prosody. Online proceedings of first and second languages: Exploring the relationship in pedagogy-related contexts, Oxford, United Kingdom. www.education.ox.ca.uk/word/press/wp-content/uploads/2010/08/RasierHiligsmann.doc
    [Google Scholar]
  93. Riggenbach, H.
    (1991) Toward an understanding of fluency: A microanalysis of nonnative speaker conversations. Discourse Processes, (), –. 10.1080/01638539109544795
    https://doi.org/10.1080/01638539109544795 [Google Scholar]
  94. Rossiter, M. J.
    (2009) Perceptions of L2 fluency by native and non-native speakers of English. Canadian Modern Language Review, (), –. 10.3138/cmlr.65.3.395
    https://doi.org/10.3138/cmlr.65.3.395 [Google Scholar]
  95. Sahlender, M., & Ten Hagen, I.
    (2023) Do teachers adapt their gestures in linguistically heterogeneous second language teaching to learners’ language proficiencies?. Gesture, (), –. 10.1075/gest.22023.sah
    https://doi.org/10.1075/gest.22023.sah [Google Scholar]
  96. Saito, K., Trofimovich, P., Isaacs, T.
    (2016) Second language speech production: Investigating linguistic correlates of comprehensibility and accentedness for learners at different ability levels. Applied Psycholinguistics, (),–. 10.1017/S0142716414000502
    https://doi.org/10.1017/S0142716414000502 [Google Scholar]
  97. Sato, R.
    (2020) Gestures in EFL classroom: Their relations with complexity, accuracy, and fluency in EFL teachers’ L2 utterances. System, , . 10.1016/j.system.2020.102215
    https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2020.102215 [Google Scholar]
  98. Segalowitz, N.
    (2010) Cognitive bases of second language fluency. Routledge. 10.4324/9780203851357
    https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203851357 [Google Scholar]
  99. Skarnitzl, R., & Bořil, T.
    (2024) Training of English prosody with acoustically modified voices. Journal of Second Language Pronunciation, (), –. 10.1075/jslp.24041.ska
    https://doi.org/10.1075/jslp.24041.ska [Google Scholar]
  100. Skehan, P.
    (2003) Task-based instruction. Language Teaching, (), –. 10.1017/S026144480200188X
    https://doi.org/10.1017/S026144480200188X [Google Scholar]
  101. (2009) Modelling second language performance: Integrating complexity, accuracy, fluency, and lexis. Applied Linguistics, (), –. 10.1093/applin/amp047
    https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/amp047 [Google Scholar]
  102. Smotrova, T.
    (2017) Making pronunciation visible: Gesture in teaching pronunciation. TESOL Quarterly, (), –. 10.1002/tesq.276
    https://doi.org/10.1002/tesq.276 [Google Scholar]
  103. Smotrova, T., & Lantolf, J. P.
    (2013) The function of gesture in lexically focused L2 instructional conversations. The Modern Language Journal, (), –. 10.1111/j.1540‑4781.2013.12008.x
    https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4781.2013.12008.x [Google Scholar]
  104. So, W. C.
    (2010) Cross-cultural transfer in gesture frequency in Chinese-English bilinguals. Language and Cognitive Processes, (), –. 10.1080/01690961003694268
    https://doi.org/10.1080/01690961003694268 [Google Scholar]
  105. Sueyoshi, A., & Hardison, D. M.
    (2005) The role of gestures and facial cues in second language listening comprehension. Language Learning, (), –. 10.1111/j.0023‑8333.2005.00320.x
    https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0023-8333.2005.00320.x [Google Scholar]
  106. Suzuki, S., & Kormos, J.
    (2020) Linguistic dimensions of comprehensibility and perceived fluency: An investigation of complexity, accuracy, and fluency in second language argumentative speech. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, , –. 10.1017/S0272263119000421
    https://doi.org/10.1017/S0272263119000421 [Google Scholar]
  107. Suzuki, S., Kormos, J., & Uchihara, T.
    (2021) The relationship between utterance and perceived fluency: A meta-analysis of correlational studies. The Modern Language Journal, (), –. 10.1111/modl.12706
    https://doi.org/10.1111/modl.12706 [Google Scholar]
  108. Swerts, M., & Geluykens, R.
    (1994) Prosody as a marker of information flow in spoken discourse. Language and Speech, (), –. 10.1177/002383099403700102
    https://doi.org/10.1177/002383099403700102 [Google Scholar]
  109. Swerts, M., Krahmer, E., & Avesani, C.
    (2002) Prosodic marking of information status in Dutch and Italian: A comparative analysis. Journal of Phonetics, (), –. 10.1006/jpho.2002.0178
    https://doi.org/10.1006/jpho.2002.0178 [Google Scholar]
  110. Szyszka, M., & Lintunen, P.
    (2025) Exploring the interplay of trait-like L2 willingness to communicate, international posture, language anxiety and fluency in monologue L2 speech. International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching. 10.1515/iral‑2024‑0173
    https://doi.org/10.1515/iral-2024-0173 [Google Scholar]
  111. Tavakoli, P.
    (2023) Making fluency research accessible to second language teachers: The impact of a training intervention. Language Teaching Research, (), –. 10.1177/1362168820951213
    https://doi.org/10.1177/1362168820951213 [Google Scholar]
  112. Tavakoli, P., & Skehan, P.
    (2005) Strategic planning, task structure, and performance testing. InR. Ellis (Ed.), Planning and task performance in a second languages (pp.–). John Benjamins Publishing Company. 10.1075/lllt.11.15tav
    https://doi.org/10.1075/lllt.11.15tav [Google Scholar]
  113. Tergujeff, E.
    (2013) English pronunciation teaching in Finland. [Doctoral dissertation, University of Jyväskylä]. Repository. https://jyx.jyu.fi/bitstreams/4ad4805b-b341-45b5-9cfd-98cf5b52776d/download
    [Google Scholar]
  114. Trouvain, J., & Braun, B.
    (2020) Sentence prosody in a second language. InC. Gussenhoven & A. Chen (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of language prosody (pp.–). Oxford University Press. 10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198832232.013.40
    https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198832232.013.40 [Google Scholar]
  115. Trofimovich, P., & Baker, W.
    (2006) Learning second language suprasegmentals: Effect of L2 experience on prosody and fluency characteristics of L2 speech. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, (), –. 10.1017/S0272263106060013
    https://doi.org/10.1017/S0272263106060013 [Google Scholar]
  116. Trofimovich, P., & Isaacs, T.
    (2012) Disentangling accent from comprehensibility. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, (), –. 10.1017/S1366728912000168
    https://doi.org/10.1017/S1366728912000168 [Google Scholar]
  117. Ulbrich, C.
    (2013) German pitches in English: Production and perception of cross-varietal differences in L2. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, (), –. 10.1017/S1366728912000582
    https://doi.org/10.1017/S1366728912000582 [Google Scholar]
  118. Vallduví, E.
    (1990) The informational component: Ph.D. dissertation. University of Pennsylvania. https://hdl.handle.net/10230/70244
  119. Valls Ferrer, M.
    (2011) The development of oral fluency and rhythm during a study abroad period. [Doctoral dissertation, Universitat Pompeu Fabra]. Universitat Pompeu Fabra. Repository. https://repositori.upf.edu/items/de58da6d-a96b-46ef-88de-9c82fec218a5
  120. Van Els, T., & de Bot, K.
    (1987) The Role of Intonation in Foreign Accent. The Modern Language Journal, (), –. 10.1111/j.1540‑4781.1987.tb01597.x
    https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4781.1987.tb01597.x [Google Scholar]
  121. Van Gelderen, A.
    (1994) Prediction of global ratings of fluency and delivery in narrative discourse by linguistic and phonetic measures-oral performances of students aged 11–12 years. Language Testing, (), –. 10.1177/026553229401100304
    https://doi.org/10.1177/026553229401100304 [Google Scholar]
  122. Van Maastricht, L. & Esteve-Gibert, N.
    (2025) Head gestures do not serve as precursors of prosodic focus marking in the second language as they do in the first language. Language Learning, –. 10.1111/lang.70015
    https://doi.org/10.1111/lang.70015 [Google Scholar]
  123. Van Maastricht, L., Hoetjes, M., Van der Heijden, L.
    (2022) Learning L2 prosody using gestures: The role of individual differences related to musicality. Proceedings of Speech Prosody 2022, –, 10.21437/SpeechProsody.2022‑146
    https://doi.org/10.21437/SpeechProsody.2022-146 [Google Scholar]
  124. Van Maastricht, L., Krahmer, E., & Swerts, M.
    (2016a) Prominence patterns in a second language: Intonational transfer from Dutch to Spanish and vice versa. Language Learning, (), –. 10.1111/lang.12141
    https://doi.org/10.1111/lang.12141 [Google Scholar]
  125. (2016b) Native speaker perceptions of (non-) native prominence patterns: Effects of deviance in pitch accent distributions on accentedness, comprehensibility, intelligibility, and nativeness. Speech Communication, , –. 10.1016/j.specom.2016.07.008
    https://doi.org/10.1016/j.specom.2016.07.008 [Google Scholar]
  126. Van Maastricht, L., Krahmer, E., Swerts, M., & Prieto, P.
    (2019) Learning direction matters: a study on L2 rhythm acquisition by Dutch learners of Spanish and Spanish learners of Sutch. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, (), –. 10.1017/S0272263118000062
    https://doi.org/10.1017/S0272263118000062 [Google Scholar]
  127. Van Maastricht, L., Zee, T., Krahmer, E., & Swerts, M.
    (2021) The interplay of prosodic cues in the L2: How intonation, rhythm, and speech rate in speech by Spanish learners of Dutch contribute to L1 Dutch perceptions of accentedness and comprehensibility. Speech Communication, , –. 10.1016/j.specom.2020.04.003
    https://doi.org/10.1016/j.specom.2020.04.003 [Google Scholar]
  128. Vilà-Giménez, I., & Prieto, P.
    (2020) Encouraging kids to beat: Children’s beat gesture production boosts their narrative performance. Developmental Science, (), . 10.1111/desc.12967
    https://doi.org/10.1111/desc.12967 [Google Scholar]
  129. (2021) The value of non-referential gestures: A systematic review of their cognitive and linguistic effects in children’s language development. Children, (), . 10.3390/children8020148
    https://doi.org/10.3390/children8020148 [Google Scholar]
  130. Wennerstrom, A.
    (1998) Intonation as cohesion in academic discourse: A Study of Chinese Speakers of English. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, (), –. www.jstor.org/stable/44486381. 10.1017/S0272263198001016
    https://doi.org/10.1017/S0272263198001016 [Google Scholar]
  131. White, L., & Mattys, S. L.
    (2007) Calibrating rhythm: First language and second language studies. Journal of Phonetics, (), –. 10.1016/j.wocn.2007.02.003
    https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wocn.2007.02.003 [Google Scholar]
  132. Xi, X., & Li, P.
    (2026) A review of the effectiveness of hand gestures in second language phonetic training. Languages, (), . 10.3390/languages11030043
    https://doi.org/10.3390/languages11030043 [Google Scholar]
  133. Yu, J., Zhang, L., Wu, S., & Zhang, B.
    (2017) Rhythm and disfluency: interactions in Chinese L2 English speech. In2017 20th Conference of the Oriental Chapter of the International Coordinating Committee on Speech Databases and Speech I/O Systems and Assessment (O-COCOSDA) (pp.–). Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers. 10.1109/ICSDA.2017.8384459
    https://doi.org/10.1109/ICSDA.2017.8384459 [Google Scholar]
  134. Yuan, C., González-Fuente, S., Baills, F., & Prieto, P.
    (2019) Observing pitch gestures favors the learning of Spanish intonation by Mandarin speakers. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, (), –. 10.1017/S0272263117000316
    https://doi.org/10.1017/S0272263117000316 [Google Scholar]
  135. Zhang, Y., Baills, F., & Prieto, P.
    (2024) Embodied music training can help improve speech imitation and pronunciation skills. Language Teaching, –. 10.1017/S0261444824000363
    https://doi.org/10.1017/S0261444824000363 [Google Scholar]
  136. Zhu, Y.
    (2013) Expression and recognition of emotion in native and foreign speech: The case of Mandarin and Dutch. [Doctoral dissertation, Leiden University].
  137. Zhu, Y., & Mok, P.
    (2022) The Role of Prosody Across Languages. InT. M. Derwing, M. J. Munro, & R. I. Thomson (Eds.), The Routledge Handbook of Second Language Acquisition and Speaking (pp.–). Routledge. 10.4324/9781003022497‑18
    https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003022497-18 [Google Scholar]
  138. Zubizarreta, M. L., & Nava, E.
    (2011) Encoding discourse-based meaning: Prosody vs. syntax. Implications for second language acquisition. Lingua, (), –. 10.1016/j.lingua.2010.06.013
    https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lingua.2010.06.013 [Google Scholar]
/content/journals/10.1075/jslp.25053.van
Loading
/content/journals/10.1075/jslp.25053.van
Loading

Data & Media loading...

  • Article Type: Research Article
Keywords: gesture ; L2 ; prosody ; fluency ; perception ; production ; embodiment
This is a required field
Please enter a valid email address
Approval was successful
Invalid data
An Error Occurred
Approval was partially successful, following selected items could not be processed due to error