1887
  1. Home
  2. e-Journals
  3. Journal of Second Language Studies
  4. Volume 7, Issue 1
  5. Article
Volume 7, Issue 1
  • ISSN 2542-3835
  • E-ISSN: 2542-3843
EPUB
PDF

Abstract

Abstract

Instructed second language (L2) research has frequently addressed the effects of spacing, or, alternatively, the distribution of practice effects. The present study addresses Rogers and Cheung’s (2021) concerns about the ecological validity of such work via a natural experiment (Craig et al., 2017). Learners’ self-determined exposure and in-app behavior were examined in relation to language gains over time. Duolingo learners of Spanish or French ( = 287) completed a background questionnaire, scales measuring L2 motivation and grit, and two tests of L2 proficiency before and after a six-month period of user-controlled app usage. Total minutes of app exposure exhibited a correlation with written but not oral proficiency gains. More dependable correlates of gains were frequency- and curriculum-oriented measures. Additionally, L2 grit and motivation were weakly to moderately correlated with several in-app behaviors. We conclude with implications for how apps can best be leveraged to produce L2 gains.

© John Benjamins Publishing Company
Available under the CC BY 4.0 license.
Loading

Article metrics loading...

/content/journals/10.1075/jsls.00021.plo
2023-08-25
2025-02-06

  • From This Site

    /content/journals/10.1075/jsls.00021.plo
    dcterms_title,dcterms_subject,pub_keyword
    -contentType:Journal -contentType:Contributor -contentType:Concept -contentType:Institution
    10
    5
Loading full text...

Full text loading...

/deliver/fulltext/jsls.00021.plo.html?itemId=/content/journals/10.1075/jsls.00021.plo&mimeType=html&fmt=ahah

References

  1. Carpenter, S. K.
    (2020) Distributed practice/spacing effect. InLi-fang Zhang (Ed.), Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Education (pp. 1–20). Oxford University Press. 10.1093/acrefore/9780190264093.013.859
     https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190264093.013.859 [Google Scholar]
  2. Cepeda, N. J., Vul, E., Rohrer, D., Wixted, J. T., & Pashler, H.
    (2008) Spacing effects in learning: A temporal ridgeline of optimal retention. Psychological Science, 19(11), 1095–1102. 10.1111/j.1467‑9280.2008.02209.x
     https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02209.x [Google Scholar]
  3. Council of Europe
    Council of Europe (2001) Common European Framework of Reference for languages: Learning, teaching, assessment. Retrieved fromhttps://rm.coe.int/1680459f97
     [Google Scholar]
  4. Counsell, C. L.
    (2018) The C‑test in French: Development and validation of a language proficiency test for research purposes. InJ. M. Norris (Ed.), Developing C‑tests for estimating proficiency in foreign language research (pp. 203–230). Peter Lang.
     [Google Scholar]
  5. Craig, P., Katikireddi, S. V., Leyland, A., & Popham, F.
    (2017) Natural experiments: An overview of methods, approaches, and contributions to public health intervention research. Annual Review of Public Health, 381, 39–56. 10.1146/annurev‑publhealth‑031816‑044327
     https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-publhealth-031816-044327 [Google Scholar]
  6. Delaney, P. F., Verkoeijen, P. P. J. L., & Spirgel, A.
    (2010) Spacing and testing effects: A deeply critical, lengthy, and at times discursive review of the literature. InB. H. Ross (Ed.), The psychology of learning and motivation: Advances in research and theory (Vol.531, pp. 63–147). Academic Press. 10.1016/S0079‑7421(10)53003‑2
     https://doi.org/10.1016/S0079-7421(10)53003-2 [Google Scholar]
  7. Duckworth, A. L., Peterson, C., Matthews, M. D., & Kelly, D. R.
    (2007) Grit: Perseverance and passion for long term goals. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 921, 1087–1101. 10.1037/0022‑3514.92.6.1087
     https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.92.6.1087 [Google Scholar]
  8. Ellis, R.
    (2005) Measuring implicit and explicit knowledge of a second language: A Psychometric Study. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 27(2), 141–172. 10.1017/S0272263105050096
     https://doi.org/10.1017/S0272263105050096 [Google Scholar]
  9. Gaillard, S., & Tremblay, A.
    (2016) Linguistic proficiency assessment in second Language acquisition research: The elicited imitation task. Language Learning, 661, 419–447. 10.1111/lang.12157
     https://doi.org/10.1111/lang.12157 [Google Scholar]
  10. García Botero, G., Questier, F., & Zhu, C.
    (2019) Self-directed language learning in a mobile-assisted, out-of-class context: do students walk the talk?Computer Assisted Language Learning, 321, 71–97. 10.1080/09588221.2018.1485707
     https://doi.org/10.1080/09588221.2018.1485707 [Google Scholar]
  11. Gass, S. M., Behney, J., & Plonsky, L.
    (2020) Second language acquisition: An introductory course (5th ed.). Routledge. 10.4324/9781315181752
     https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315181752 [Google Scholar]
  12. Heo, Y.
    (2016) Heritage and L2 learners’ acquisition of Korean in terms of implicit and explicit knowledge. PhD dissertation, Michigan State University, East Lansing.
  13. Jiang, X., Chen, H., Portnoff, L., Gustafson, E., Rollinson, J., Plonsky, L., & Pajak, B.
    (2021) Seven units of Duolingo courses comparable to 5 university semesters in reading and listening. Duolingo Research Report DRR-21-03.
     [Google Scholar]
  14. Jiang, X., Rollinson, J., Chen, H., Reuveni, B., Gustafson, E., Plonsky, L., & Pajak, B.
    (2021) How well does Duolingo teach speaking skills?Duolingo Research Report DRR-21-02.
     [Google Scholar]
  15. Jiang, X., Rollinson, J., Plonsky, L., & Pajak, B.
    (2020) Duolingo efficacy study: Beginning-level courses equivalent to four university semesters. Duolingo Research Report DRR-20-04.
     [Google Scholar]
  16. Jiang, X., Rollinson, J., Plonsky, L., Gustafson, E., & Pajak, B.
    (2021) Evaluating the reading and listening outcomes of beginning-level Duolingo courses. Foreign Language Annals, 541, 974–1002. 10.1111/flan.12600
     https://doi.org/10.1111/flan.12600 [Google Scholar]
  17. Kasprowicz, R. E., Marsden, E., & Sephton, N.
    (2019) Investigating distribution of practice effects for the learning of foreign language verb morphology in the young learner. Modern Language Journal, 1031, 580–606. 10.1111/modl.12586
     https://doi.org/10.1111/modl.12586 [Google Scholar]
  18. Kim, S. K., & Webb, S.
    (2022) The effects of spaced practice on second language learning: A meta-analysis. Language Learning, 721, 269–319. 10.1111/lang.12479
     https://doi.org/10.1111/lang.12479 [Google Scholar]
  19. Kostromitina, M., & Plonsky, L.
    (2022) Elicited imitation tasks as a measure of L2 proficiency: A meta-analysis. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 441, 886–911. 10.1017/S0272263121000395
     https://doi.org/10.1017/S0272263121000395 [Google Scholar]
  20. Li, M., & DeKeyser, R.
    (2019) Distribution of practice effects in the acquisition and retention of L2 Mandarin tonal word production. Modern Language Journal, 1031, 607–628. 10.1111/modl.12580
     https://doi.org/10.1111/modl.12580 [Google Scholar]
  21. Loewen, S.
    (2020) Introduction to instructed second language acquisition (2nd ed.). Routledge. 10.4324/9781315616797
     https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315616797 [Google Scholar]
  22. Loewen, S., Crowther, D., Isbell, D., Kim, K., Maloney, J., Miller, Z., & Rawal, H.
    (2019) Mobile-assisted language learning: A Duolingo case study. ReCALL, 31(3), 293–311. 10.1017/S0958344019000065
     https://doi.org/10.1017/S0958344019000065 [Google Scholar]
  23. Loewen, S., Isbell, D., & Sporn, Z.
    (2020) The effectiveness of app-based language instruction for developing receptive linguistic knowledge and oral communicative ability. Foreign Language Annals, 53(2), 209–233. 10.1111/flan.12454
     https://doi.org/10.1111/flan.12454 [Google Scholar]
  24. McKay, T.
    (2019) More on the validity and reliability of C‑test scores: A meta-analysis of C‑test studies (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Georgetown University, Washington, DC.
  25. Nakata, T.
    (2015) Effects of expanding and equal spacing on second language vocabulary learning: Does gradually increasing spacing increase vocabulary learning?. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 371, 677–711. 10.1017/S0272263114000825
     https://doi.org/10.1017/S0272263114000825 [Google Scholar]
  26. Nakata, T., & Suzuki, Y.
    (2019) Effects of massing and spacing on the learning of semantically related and unrelated words. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 411, 287–311. 10.1017/S0272263118000219
     https://doi.org/10.1017/S0272263118000219 [Google Scholar]
  27. Norris, J. M., & Ortega, L.
    (2000) Effectiveness of L2 instruction: A research synthesis and quantitative meta-analysis. Language Learning, 501, 417–528. 10.1111/0023‑8333.00136
     https://doi.org/10.1111/0023-8333.00136 [Google Scholar]
  28. Papi, M., Bondarenko, A., Mansouri, S., Feng, L., & Jiang, C.
    (2019) Rethinking L2 motivation research: The 2 × 2 model of L2 self-guides. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 411, 337–361. 10.1017/S0272263118000153
     https://doi.org/10.1017/S0272263118000153 [Google Scholar]
  29. Park, D., Yu, A., Baelen, R. N., Tsukayama, E., & Duckworth, A. L.
    (2018) Fostering grit: Perceived school goal-structure predicts growth in grit and grades. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 551, 120–128. 10.1016/j.cedpsych.2018.09.007
     https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2018.09.007 [Google Scholar]
  30. Pawlak, M., & Kruk, M.
    (2022) Individual differences in computer assisted language learning research. Routledge. 10.4324/9781003240051
     https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003240051 [Google Scholar]
  31. Plonsky, L., & Oswald, F. L.
    (2014) How big is “big”? Interpreting effect sizes in L2 research. Language Learning, 641, 878–912. 10.1111/lang.12079
     https://doi.org/10.1111/lang.12079 [Google Scholar]
  32. Plonsky, L., & Ziegler, N.
    (2016) The CALL-SLA interface: Insights from a second-order synthesis. Language Learning & Technology, 201, 17–37.
     [Google Scholar]
  33. Reinders, H., & Stockwell, G.
    (2017) Computer-assisted SLA. InS. Loewen & M. Sato (Eds.), The Routledge handbook of instructed second language acquisition (pp. 108–125). Routledge. 10.4324/9781315676968‑20
     https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315676968-20 [Google Scholar]
  34. Riggs, D., & Maimone, L. L.
    (2018) A computerized-administered C‑test in Spanish. InJ. M. Norris (Ed.), Developing C‑tests for estimating proficiency in foreign language research (pp. 265–294). Peter Lang.
     [Google Scholar]
  35. Rohrer, D.
    (2015) Student instruction should be distributed over long time periods. Educational Psychology Review, 27(4), 635–643. 10.1007/s10648‑015‑9332‑4
     https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-015-9332-4 [Google Scholar]
  36. Rogers, J.
    (2017) The spacing effect and its relevance to second language acquisition. Applied Linguistics, 38(6), 906–911. 10.1093/applin/amw052
     https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/amw052 [Google Scholar]
  37. (2023) Spacing effects in task repetition research. Language Learning, 73(2), 445–474. 10.1111/lang.12526
     https://doi.org/10.1111/lang.12526 [Google Scholar]
  38. Rogers, J., & Cheung, A.
    (2020) Input spacing and the learning of L2 vocabulary in a classroom context. Language Teaching Research, 24(5), 616–641. 10.1177/1362168818805251
     https://doi.org/10.1177/1362168818805251 [Google Scholar]
  39. (2021) Does it matter when you review? Input spacing, ecological validity, and the learning of L2 vocabulary. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 431, 1138–1156. 10.1017/S0272263120000236
     https://doi.org/10.1017/S0272263120000236 [Google Scholar]
  40. Saito, K., & Plonsky, L.
    (2019) Measuring the effects of second language pronunciation teaching: A proposed framework and meta-analysis. Language Learning, 691, 652–708. 10.1111/lang.12345
     https://doi.org/10.1111/lang.12345 [Google Scholar]
  41. Schmidt, F. T., Nagy, G., Fleckenstein, J., Möller, J., & Retelsdorf, J.
    (2018) Same same, but different? Relations between facets of conscientiousness and grit. European Journal of Personality, 321, 705–720. 10.1002/per.2171
     https://doi.org/10.1002/per.2171 [Google Scholar]
  42. Serrano, R.
    (2011) The time factor in EFL classroom practice. Language Learning, 61(1), 117–145. 10.1111/j.1467‑9922.2010.00591.x
     https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9922.2010.00591.x [Google Scholar]
  43. (2022) A state-of-the-art review of distribution-of-practice effects on L2 learning. Studies in Second Language Learning and Teaching, 12(3), 355–379. 10.14746/ssllt.2022.12.3.2
     https://doi.org/10.14746/ssllt.2022.12.3.2 [Google Scholar]
  44. Serrano, R., & Huang, H. Y.
    (2018) Learning vocabulary through assisted repeated reading: How much time should there be between repetitions of the same text?TESOL Quarterly, 52(4), 971–994. 10.1002/tesq.445
     https://doi.org/10.1002/tesq.445 [Google Scholar]
  45. (2023) Time distribution and intentional vocabulary learning through repeated reading: A partial replication and extension. Language Awareness, 32(1), 1–18. 10.1080/09658416.2021.1894162
     https://doi.org/10.1080/09658416.2021.1894162 [Google Scholar]
  46. Solon, M., Park, H. I., Henderson, C., & Dehghan-Chaleshtori, M.
    (2019) Revisiting the Spanish elicited imitation task: A tool for assessing advanced language learners?Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 411, 1027–1053. 10.1017/S0272263119000342
     https://doi.org/10.1017/S0272263119000342 [Google Scholar]
  47. Sudina, E., & Plonsky, L.
    (2021a) Academic perseverance in foreign language learning: An investigation of language-specific grit and its conceptual correlates. Modern Language Journal, 1051, 829–857. 10.1111/modl.12738
     https://doi.org/10.1111/modl.12738 [Google Scholar]
  48. (2021b) Language learning grit, achievement, and anxiety among L2 and L3 learners in Russia. ITL – International Journal of Applied Linguistics, 1721, 161–198. 10.1075/itl.20001.sud
     https://doi.org/10.1075/itl.20001.sud [Google Scholar]
  49. Suzuki, Y.
    (2017) The optimal distribution of practice for the acquisition of L2 morphology: A conceptual replication and extension. Language Learning, 67(3), 512–545. 10.1111/lang.12236
     https://doi.org/10.1111/lang.12236 [Google Scholar]
  50. (2019) Individualization of practice distribution in second language grammar learning: The role of metalinguistic rule rehearsal ability and working memory capacity. Journal of Second Language Studies, 2(2), 169-196. 10.1075/jsls.18023.suz
     https://doi.org/10.1075/jsls.18023.suz [Google Scholar]
  51. Suzuki, Y., & DeKeyser, R.
    (2017) Effects of distributed practice on the proceduralization of morphology. Language Teaching Research, 21(2), 166–188. 10.1177/1362168815617334
     https://doi.org/10.1177/1362168815617334 [Google Scholar]
  52. Teimouri, Y.
    (2017) L2 selves, emotions, and motivated behaviors. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 391, 681–709. 10.1017/S0272263116000243
     https://doi.org/10.1017/S0272263116000243 [Google Scholar]
  53. Teimouri, Y., Sudina, E., & Plonsky, L.
    (2021) On domain-specific conceptualization and measurement of grit in L2 learning. Journal for the Psychology of Language Learning, 31, 156–164. 10.52598/jpll/3/2/10
     https://doi.org/10.52598/jpll/3/2/10 [Google Scholar]
  54. Teimouri, Y., Plonsky, L., & Tabandeh, F.
    (2022) L2 Grit: Passion and perseverance for second-language learning. Language Teaching Research, 261, 893–918. 10.1177/1362168820921895
     https://doi.org/10.1177/1362168820921895 [Google Scholar]
  55. Uchihara, T., Webb, S., & Yanagisawa, A.
    (2019) The effects of repetition on incidental vocabulary learning: A meta-analysis of correlational studies. Language Learning, 69(3), 559–599. 10.1111/lang.12343
     https://doi.org/10.1111/lang.12343 [Google Scholar]
  56. Yamagata, S., Nakata, T., & Rogers, J.
    (2023) Effects of distributed practice on the acquisition of verb-noun collocations. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 451, 291–317. 10.1017/S0272263122000225
     https://doi.org/10.1017/S0272263122000225 [Google Scholar]
/content/journals/10.1075/jsls.00021.plo
Loading
The effects of frequency, duration, and intensity on L2 learning through Duolingo
Journal of Second Language Studies 7, 1 (2024); https://doi.org/10.1075/jsls.00021.plo
/content/journals/10.1075/jsls.00021.plo
/content/journals/10.1075/jsls.00021.plo
Loading

Data & Media loading...

  • Article Type: Research Article
Keyword(s): distribution of practice; Duolingo; grit; instructed SLA; mobile-assisted language learning

Most Cited

This is a required field
Please enter a valid email address
Approval was successful
Invalid data
An Error Occurred
Approval was partially successful, following selected items could not be processed due to error