Volume 10, Issue 1
GBP
Buy:£15.00 + Taxes

Abstract

Abstract

Although formal analyses of code-switching have enjoyed some success in determining which structures and interfaces are more fertile environments for switches than others, research exposing recalcitrant counter-examples to proposed constraints and axioms responsible for governing code-switching is abound. We advance the claim here that sub-optimal representations, i.e., , stand to reveal important information regarding the interaction of grammatical principles and processing strategies of bilingual speakers and that any comprehensive analysis of code-switching phenomena should include them. These losers are the result of gradient activation in both input and output forms. We demonstrate how the formalism Gradient Symbolic Computation (GSC; Smolensky et al., 2014) can account for both of these observed facets of bilingual grammars in a unified manner. Building upon the work of Goldrick et al. (2016ab), we provide an analysis of mixed determiner phrases (DPs) as an example of the fundamental components of a GSC-analysis.

Loading

Article metrics loading...

/content/journals/10.1075/lab.16008.put
2017-06-21
2024-03-29
Loading full text...

Full text loading...

References

  1. Backus, A.
    (1992) Patterns of language mixing: A study of Turkish-Dutch bilingualism. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz.
    [Google Scholar]
  2. Badiola, L. , Delgado, R. , Sande, A. , & Stefanich, S.
    (2017) Code-switching attitudes and their effects on acceptability judgment tasks. Linguistic Approaches to Bilingualism, 7(5).
    [Google Scholar]
  3. Beatty-Martínez, A. & Dussias, P.
    (2015) Mapping pictures, switching strategies: An analysis of code-switching production patterns. Poster. Programa Graduado de Lingüística: Universidad de Puerto Rico, Río Piedras.
    [Google Scholar]
  4. Belazi, H. M. , Rubin, E. J. , & Toribio, A. J.
    (1994) Code-switching and X-bar theory: The Functional Head Constraint. Linguistic Inquiry, 25, 221–237.
    [Google Scholar]
  5. Bhatt, R.
    (1997) Code-switching, constraints, and optimal grammars. Lingua, 102, 223–251. doi:  10.1016/S0024‑3841(97)00007‑7
    https://doi.org/10.1016/S0024-3841(97)00007-7 [Google Scholar]
  6. (2014) Argument licensing in optimal switches. In: J. MacSwan (Ed.), Grammatical theory and bilingual codeswitching (pp.135–158). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
    [Google Scholar]
  7. Broaders, S. C. , Cook, S. W. , Mitchell, Z. , & Goldin-Meadow, S.
    (2007) Making children gesture brings out implicit knowledge and leads to learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 136(4), 539–550. doi:  10.1037/0096‑3445.136.4.539
    https://doi.org/10.1037/0096-3445.136.4.539 [Google Scholar]
  8. Coetzee, A. W.
    (2006) Variation as accessing ‘non-optimal’ candidates. Phonology, 23(3), 337–385. doi:  10.1017/S0952675706000984
    https://doi.org/10.1017/S0952675706000984 [Google Scholar]
  9. Cook, S. W. , Mitchell, Z. , & Goldin-Meadow, S.
    (2008) Gesturing makes learning fast. Cognition, 106(2), 1047–1058. doi:  10.1016/j.cognition.2007.04.010
    https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2007.04.010 [Google Scholar]
  10. Costa, A. , Caramazza, A. , & Sebastián-Gallés, N.
    (2000) The cognate facilitation effect: Implications for models of lexical access. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 26, 1283–1296.
    [Google Scholar]
  11. Crocker, M. & Keller, F.
    (2005) Probabilistic grammars as models of gradience in language processing. In: G. Fanselow , C. Féry , R. Vogel , & M. Schlesewsky (Eds.), Gradience in grammar: Generative perspectives (pp.227–245). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
    [Google Scholar]
  12. de Bot, K.
    (2004) The multilingual lexicon: Modeling section and control. International Journal of Bilingualism, 1, 17–32.
    [Google Scholar]
  13. Dell, G.
    (1995) Speaking and missspeaking. In: L. R. Gleitman & M. Liberman (Eds.), An invitation to cognitive science (2nd edition) Volume 1: Language (pp.183–208). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
    [Google Scholar]
  14. Deuchar, M. & Biberauer, T.
    (2016) Doubling: An error or an illusion?Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 19(5), 881–882. 10.1017/S1366728916000043
    https://doi.org/10.1017/S1366728916000043 [Google Scholar]
  15. Di Sciullo, A. M. , Muysken, P. , & Singh, R.
    (1986) Government and code-mixing. Journal of Linguistics, 22, 1–24. doi:  10.1017/S0022226700010537
    https://doi.org/10.1017/S0022226700010537 [Google Scholar]
  16. Döpke, S.
    (2001) The interplay between language-specific development and cross-linguistic influence. In: S. Döpke (Ed.), Cross-linguistic structures in simultaneous bilingualism (pp.79–103). Amsterdam: John Benjamins. doi:  10.1075/sibil.21.07dop
    https://doi.org/10.1075/sibil.21.07dop [Google Scholar]
  17. Ebert, S. & Koronkiewicz, B.
    (2017) Monolingual stimuli and the analysis of code-switching. Linguistic Approaches to Bilingualism, 7(5).
    [Google Scholar]
  18. Featherston, S.
    (2004) The decathlon model of empirical syntax. In: S. Kepser & M. Reis (Eds.), Linguistic evidence (pp.187–208). Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.
    [Google Scholar]
  19. Goldin-Meadow, S. & Beilock, S. L.
    (2010) Action’s influence on thought: The case of gesture. Perspectives of Psychological Science, 5(6), 664–674. doi:  10.1177/1745691610388764
    https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691610388764 [Google Scholar]
  20. Goldrick, M.
    (2011) Linking speech errors and generative phonological theory. Language and Linguistic Compass, 5/6, 397–412. doi:  10.1111/j.1749‑818X.2011.00282.x
    https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-818X.2011.00282.x [Google Scholar]
  21. Goldrick, M. , Putnam, M. , & Schwarz, L.
    (2016a) Coactivation in bilingual grammars: A computational account of code mixing. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 9(5), 857–876. 10.1017/S1366728915000802
    https://doi.org/10.1017/S1366728915000802 [Google Scholar]
  22. (2016b) The future of code mixing research: Integrating psycholinguistic and formal grammatical theories. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 9(5), 903–906. 10.1017/S1366728916000390
    https://doi.org/10.1017/S1366728916000390 [Google Scholar]
  23. Gollan, T. H. , & Goldrick, M.
    (2016) Grammar constraints on language switching: Control is not just executive control. Journal of Memory and Language, 90, 177–199. 10.1016/j.jml.2016.04.002
    https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jml.2016.04.002 [Google Scholar]
  24. Gullberg, M. & Parfita Couto, M. C.
    (2016) An integrated perspective on code-mixing patterns beyond doubling?Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 9(5), 885–886. 10.1017/S1366728916000080
    https://doi.org/10.1017/S1366728916000080 [Google Scholar]
  25. Hartsuiker, R. J. & Pickering, M. J.
    (2008) Language interaction in bilingual sentence production. Acta Psychologica, 128, 479–489. doi:  10.1016/j.actpsy.2007.08.005
    https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actpsy.2007.08.005 [Google Scholar]
  26. Van Hell, J. , Cohen, C. , & Grey, S.
    (2016) Testing tolerance for lexically-specific factors in Gradient Symbolic Computation. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 9(5), 897–899. 10.1017/S1366728916000122
    https://doi.org/10.1017/S1366728916000122 [Google Scholar]
  27. Van Hell, J. , Fernandez, C. B. , Kootstra, G. J. , Litcofsky, K. A. , & Ting, C. Y.
    (2017) Electrophysiological and experimental-behavioral approaches to the study of intra-sentential code-switching. Linguistic Approaches to Bilingualism, 7(5).
    [Google Scholar]
  28. Hernandez-Pina, F.
    (1984) Teorías psicosociolingüísticas y su aplicación del español como lengua materna [Psycholinguistic theories and their application to the acquisition of Spanish as a native language]. Siglo XXI, Madrid.
    [Google Scholar]
  29. Hermans, D. , Bongaerts, T. , de Bot, K. , & Schreuder, R.
    (1998) Producing words in a foreign language: Can speakers prevent interference from their first language?Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 1(3), 213–229.
    [Google Scholar]
  30. Hsin, L.
    (2014) Integrated bilingual grammatical architecture: Insights from syntactic development. PhD dissertation, Johns Hopkins University.
    [Google Scholar]
  31. Jackendoff, R.
    (2002) Foundations of language: Brain, meaning, grammar, evolution. Oxford: Oxford University Press. doi:  10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198270126.001.0001
    https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198270126.001.0001 [Google Scholar]
  32. Joshi, A.
    (1985) Processing of sentences with intrasentential code switching. In: D. R. Dowty , L. Karttunen , & A. M. Zwicky (Eds.) Natural language parsing: Psychological, computational and theoretical perspectives (pp.190–205). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi:  10.1017/CBO9780511597855.006
    https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511597855.006 [Google Scholar]
  33. Keeler, F.
    (2000) Gradience in grammar: Experimental and computational aspects of degrees of grammaticality. PhD dissertation, University of Edinburgh.
    [Google Scholar]
  34. (2003) A probabilistic parser as a model of global processing difficulty. In: R. Alterman & D. Kirsh (Eds.), Proceedings of the 25th Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society (pp.646–51). Boston.
    [Google Scholar]
  35. Keller, F. & Asudeh, A.
    (2002) Probabilistic learning algorithms and optimality theory. Linguistic Inquiry, 33(2), 225–44. doi:  10.1162/002438902317406704
    https://doi.org/10.1162/002438902317406704 [Google Scholar]
  36. Kootstra, G. J.
    (2015) A psycholinguistic perspective on code-switching: Lexical, structural, and socio-interactive processes. In: G. Stell & K. Yakpo (Eds.), Code-switching between structural and sociolinguistic perspectives (pp.39–64). Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.
    [Google Scholar]
  37. Kootstra, G. J. , van Hell, J. G. , & Dijkstra, T.
    (2009) Two speakers, one dialogue. An interactive alignment perspective on code-switching in bilingual speakers. In: L. Isurin , D. Winford , & K. de Bot (Eds.), Multidisciplinary Approaches to Code Switching (pp.129–159). Amsterdam: John Benjamins. doi:  10.1075/sibil.41.09koo
    https://doi.org/10.1075/sibil.41.09koo [Google Scholar]
  38. Kroll, J. F. , Bobb, S. C. , & Wodnieka, Z.
    (2006) Language selectivity is the exception, not the rule: Arguments against a fixed locus of language selection in bilingual speech. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 9, 119–135. doi:  10.1017/S1366728906002483
    https://doi.org/10.1017/S1366728906002483 [Google Scholar]
  39. Kroll, J. F. , & Gollan, H.
    (2014) Speech planning in two languages: What bilinguals tell us about language production. In M. Goldrick , V. Ferreira , & M. Miozzo (eds.) The Oxford handbook of language production (pp.165–181). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
    [Google Scholar]
  40. Legendre, G. , Miyata, Y. , & Smolensky, P.
    (1990) Harmonic Grammar – A formal multi-level connectionist theory of linguistic well-formedness: Theoretical foundations. In: Proceedings of the twelfth annual conference of the cognitive science society (pp.388–395). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
    [Google Scholar]
  41. Legendre, G. & Schindler, M.
    (2010) Code switching in Urban Wolof: A case for violable constraints in syntax. Revista Virtual de Estudos da Linguagem-ReVEL, 8, 47–75.
    [Google Scholar]
  42. Legendre, G. , Putnam, M. , de Swart, H. , & Zaroukian, E.
    (2016) Introduction. In: G. Legendre , M. Putnam , H. de Swart , & E. Zaroukian (Eds.), Optimality-theoretic syntax, semantics, and pragmatics: From uni- to bi-direction optimization (pp.1–31). Oxford: Oxford University Press. 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198757115.003.0001
    https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198757115.003.0001 [Google Scholar]
  43. Lillo-Martin, D. , Müller de Quadros, R. & Pichler, D. C.
    (2016) The development of bimodal bilingualism: implications for linguistic theory. Linguistic Approaches to Bilingualism, 6(6), 719–755. doi:  10.1075/lab.6.6.01lil
    https://doi.org/10.1075/lab.6.6.01lil [Google Scholar]
  44. Marian, V. , & Spivey, M.
    (2003) Competing activation in bilingual language processing: Within- and between-language competition. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 6, 97–115. doi:  10.1017/S1366728903001068
    https://doi.org/10.1017/S1366728903001068 [Google Scholar]
  45. Marull, C.
    (2015) Syntactic position constrains cross-linguistic activation. Linguistic Approaches to Bilingualism, 5(2), 153–179. doi:  10.1075/lab.5.2.01mar
    https://doi.org/10.1075/lab.5.2.01mar [Google Scholar]
  46. McCarthy, J. & Pater, J.
    (Eds) (2016) Harmonic grammar and harmonic serialism. London: Equinox.
    [Google Scholar]
  47. Meilinger, A. , Branigan, H. P. , & Pickering, M. J.
    (2014) Parallel processing in language production. Language, Cognition & Neuroscience, 29, 663–683. doi:  10.1080/23273798.2014.906635
    https://doi.org/10.1080/23273798.2014.906635 [Google Scholar]
  48. Myers-Scotton, C.
    (1993) Dueling languages: Grammatical structure in code-switching. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
    [Google Scholar]
  49. Muysken, P.
    (2000) Bilingual speech: A typology of code-mixing. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
    [Google Scholar]
  50. (2013) Language contact outcomes as the result of bilingual optimization strategies. Bilingualism. Language and Cognition, 16, 709–730. doi:  10.1017/S1366728912000727
    https://doi.org/10.1017/S1366728912000727 [Google Scholar]
  51. Nishumura, M.
    (1986) Inter-sentential code-switching: The case of language assignment. In: J. Vaid (Ed.), Language processing in bilinguals: Psycholinguistic and neuropsychological perspectives (pp.123–143). Hillsdale: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
    [Google Scholar]
  52. Otheguy, R. & Lapidus, N.
    (2003) An adaptive approach to noun gender in New York Contact Spanish. In: R. Cameron , L. López , & R. Núñez Cedeño (Eds.), A Romance perspective on language knowledge and use (pp.209–229). Amsterdam: John Benjamins. doi:  10.1075/cilt.238.17oth
    https://doi.org/10.1075/cilt.238.17oth [Google Scholar]
  53. Özçaliskan, S. & Goldin-Meadow, S.
    (2005) Gesture is the cutting edge of early language development. Cognition, 96(3), 101–113. doi:  10.1016/j.cognition.2005.01.001
    https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2005.01.001 [Google Scholar]
  54. Parafita Couto, M. C. , Munarriz, A. , Epelde, I. , Deuchar, M. , & Oyharçabal, B.
    (2015) Gender conflict resolution in Spanish-Basque mixed DPs. Bilingualism. Language and Cognition, 18(2), 304–323. doi:  10.1017/S136672891400011X
    https://doi.org/10.1017/S136672891400011X [Google Scholar]
  55. Parafita Couto, M. C. & Gullberg, M.
    (under review). Code-switching within the noun phrase – Evidence from three corpora.
    [Google Scholar]
  56. Pater, J.
    (2009) Weighted constraints in generative linguistics. Cognitive Science, 33, 999–1035. doi:  10.1111/j.1551‑6709.2009.01047.x
    https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1551-6709.2009.01047.x [Google Scholar]
  57. Pérez-Leroux, A. & Dalious, J.
    (1998) The acquisition of Spanish interrogative inversion. Hispanic Linguistics, 10(1), 84–114.
    [Google Scholar]
  58. Poplack, S.
    (1980) Sometimes I’ll start a sentence in Spanish y termino en Español: towards a typology of code-switching. Linguistics, 18, 581–618. doi:  10.1515/ling.1980.18.7‑8.581
    https://doi.org/10.1515/ling.1980.18.7-8.581 [Google Scholar]
  59. Poplack, S. , Wheeler, S. , & Westwood, A.
    (1989) Distinguishing language-contact phenomena: evidence from Finnish-English bilingualism. World Englishes, 8, 389–406. doi:  10.1111/j.1467‑971X.1989.tb00677.x
    https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-971X.1989.tb00677.x [Google Scholar]
  60. Poplack, S. & Torres Cacoullos, R.
    (2016) Data before models. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 19(5), 893–894. 10.1017/S1366728916000067
    https://doi.org/10.1017/S1366728916000067 [Google Scholar]
  61. Poulisse, N. & Bongaerts, T.
    (1994) First language use in second language production. Applied Linguistics, 15, 36–57. doi:  10.1093/applin/15.1.36
    https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/15.1.36 [Google Scholar]
  62. Putnam, M. , Legendre, G. , & Smolensky, P.
    (2016) How constrained in language mixing in bi- and uni-modal production?Linguistic Approaches to Bilingualism, 6(6), 812–816. doi:  10.1075/lab.6.6.13put
    https://doi.org/10.1075/lab.6.6.13put [Google Scholar]
  63. Rosen, E.
    (2016) Predicting the unpredictable: Capturing the apparent semi-regularity of rendaku voicing in Japanese through Harmonic Grammar. In: E. Clem , V. Dawson , A. Shen , A. H. Skilton , G. Bacon , A. Cheng , & E. H. Maier (Eds.), Proceedings of the 42nd meeting of the Berkeley Linguistics Society (pp.135–150). Berkeley, CA: Berkeley Linguistics Society.
    [Google Scholar]
  64. Rowland, C. F. , Pine, J. M. , Lieven, E. , & Teakston, A.
    (2005) The incidence of error in young children’s wh-questions. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 48(2), 384–404. doi:  10.1044/1092‑4388(2005/027)
    https://doi.org/10.1044/1092-4388(2005/027) [Google Scholar]
  65. Sankoff, D. , Poplack, S. , & Vannianiarajan, S.
    (1990) The case of the nonce loan in Tamil. Language Variation and Change, 2, 71–101. doi:  10.1017/S0954394500000272
    https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954394500000272 [Google Scholar]
  66. Smolensky, P. , Goldrick, M. , & Mathis, D.
    (2014) Optimization and quantization in gradient symbol systems: A framework for integrating the continuous and the discrete in cognition. Cognitive Science, 38, 1102–1138. doi:  10.1111/cogs.12047
    https://doi.org/10.1111/cogs.12047 [Google Scholar]
  67. Smolensky, P. & Goldrick, M.
    (2016) Gradient Symbolic Representations in grammar: The case of French Liasion. ROA-1286: roa.rutgers.edu/content/article/files/1552_smolensky_1.pdf (Accessed, November 2, 2016).
    [Google Scholar]
  68. Soriente, A.
    (2007) Cross-linguistic and cognitive structures in the acquisition of wh-questions in an Indonesian-Italian bilingual child. In: I. Kecskes & L. Albertazzi (Eds.), Cognitive aspects of bilingualism (pp.325–262). Dordrecht: Springer. doi:  10.1007/978‑1‑4020‑5935‑3_11
    https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4020-5935-3_11 [Google Scholar]
  69. Smallwood, C.
    (1997) Strong continuity, UG, and the Minimalist Program: An account of the optimal infinitive stage in child language. Unpublished manuscript. University of Toronto.
    [Google Scholar]
  70. Stadthagen-Gonzalez, H. , López, L. , Parafita Couto, M. C. , & Párraga, C. A.
    (2017) Using two-alternative forced choice tasks and Thurstone’s Law of Comparative Judgment for acceptability judgments: Examining the Adjacency Condition in Spanish/English code-switched sentences. Linguistic Approaches to Bilingualism, 7(5).
    [Google Scholar]
  71. Theakston, A. L. , Lieven, E. V. , Pine, J. M. , & Rowland, C. F.
    (2001) The role of performance limitations in the acquisition of verb-argument structure: An alternative account. Journal of Child Language, 28(1), 127–152. doi:  10.1017/S0305000900004608
    https://doi.org/10.1017/S0305000900004608 [Google Scholar]
  72. Valdés Kroff, J. R.
    (2016) Mixed NPs in Spanish-English bilingual speech: Using a corpus-based approach to inform models of sentence processing. In: R. E. Guzzardo Tamargo , C. Mazak , & M. C. Parafita Couto (Eds.), Spanish-English codeswitching in the Caribean and the U.S. (pp.281–300). Amsterdam: John Benjamins. 10.1075/ihll.11.12val
    https://doi.org/10.1075/ihll.11.12val [Google Scholar]
  73. Valdés Kroff, J. R. , Dussias, P. E. , Gerfen, C. , Perrotti, L. , & Bajo, M. T.
    (2016) Experience with code-switching modulates the use of grammatical gender during sentence processing. Linguistic Approaches to Bilingualism. doi: 10.1075/lab.150101.val
    https://doi.org/10.1075/lab.150101.val [Google Scholar]
  74. Vogel, R.
    (2006) Degraded acceptability and markedness in syntax, and the stochastic interpretation of Optimality Theory. In: G. Fanselow , C. Féry , R. Vogel , & M. Schlesewsky (Eds.), Gradience in grammar: Generative perspectives (pp.246–269). Oxford: Oxford University Press. doi:  10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199274796.003.0013
    https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199274796.003.0013 [Google Scholar]
http://instance.metastore.ingenta.com/content/journals/10.1075/lab.16008.put
Loading
/content/journals/10.1075/lab.16008.put
Loading

Data & Media loading...

Keyword(s): code-switching; dual activation; Gradient Symbolic Computation (GSC)

Most Cited