Volume 42, Issue 2
GBP
Buy:£15.00 + Taxes

Abstract

Abstract

This research provides quantitative evidence of the decline in Nuosu competence among the young Nuosu generation in Liangshan, Sichuan, China, through a direct comprehensive linguistic measurement of their Nuosu-Chinese bilingual competence. Although the young generation can still speak Nuosu, a Tibeto-Burman language, as fluently as the elder Nuosu generations without apparent difficulty, this research identifies the subtle change of competence before it becomes widely noticeable. A sample of 34 ethnic Nuosu of three generations was tested in Xichang, Liangshan, through measuring their core or implicit language knowledge (i.e. morphology, syntax, lexicon, semantics, and pragmatics) in Nuosu and Chinese. The participants were from seven Shynra-speaking counties and two Yynuo-speaking counties, mainly within Liangshan. The test format was listening and speaking, to include illiterate speakers. It was found that all elder and middle-aged subjects still possessed monolingual baseline competence, which was stable and maintained at a high level. However, only half of the young Nuosu subjects achieved monolingual baseline competence in Nuosu. The other half, though still considered as native speakers of Nuosu, had lower and more varied competence; however, almost all of them achieved monolingual baseline competence in Chinese. The Nuosu speech community in Liangshan is shifting from Nuosu-dominant bilingualism to Chinese-dominant bilingualism. Moreover, the present study proposes a typology of native speakers and a typology of bilinguals based on different levels of competence obtained from the current sample.

Loading

Article metrics loading...

/content/journals/10.1075/ltba.17014.din
2020-01-08
2024-03-28
Loading full text...

Full text loading...

References

  1. Aga, Rehamo & Stevan Harrell
    2018 Theory and practice of bilingual education in China: lessons from Liangshan Yi autonomous prefecture. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism24.1–16.
    [Google Scholar]
  2. Altenberg, Evelyn P.
    1991 Assessing first language vulnerability to attrition. InHerbert W. Seliger & Robert M. Vago (eds.), First language attrition: structural and theoretical perspectives, 189–207. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 10.1017/CBO9780511620720.013
    https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511620720.013 [Google Scholar]
  3. Austin, Peter K. & Julia Sallabank
    2011 Introduction. InPeter Austin & Julia Sallabank (eds.), The Cambridge handbook of endangered languages, 1–24. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 10.1017/CBO9780511975981.001
    https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511975981.001 [Google Scholar]
  4. Bachman, Lyle F.
    1990Fundamental considerations in language testing. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
    [Google Scholar]
  5. Baker, Colin, & Sylvia P. Jones
    1998Encyclopedia of bilingualism and bilingual education. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
    [Google Scholar]
  6. Benmamoun, Elabbas, Silvina Montrul, & Maria Polinsky
    2013 Heritage languages and their speakers: opportunities and challenges for linguistics. Theoretical Linguistics39(3–4).129–181.
    [Google Scholar]
  7. Bloomfield, Leonard
    1933Language. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
    [Google Scholar]
  8. Bot, Kees de, Paul Gommans, & Carola Rossing
    1991 L1 loss in an L2 environment: Dutch immigrants in France. InHerbert W. Seliger & Robert M. Vago (eds.), First language attrition: Structural and theoretical perspective, 87–98. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 10.1017/CBO9780511620720.006
    https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511620720.006 [Google Scholar]
  9. Bradley, David
    1997 Tibeto-Burman languages and classification. InDavid Bradley (ed.), Tibeto-Burman languages of the Himalayas, papers in South East Asian linguistics, 1–71. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics.
    [Google Scholar]
  10. 2001 Language policy for the Yi. InStevan Harrell (ed.), Perspectives on the Yi of Southwest China, 195–214. Berkeley: University of California Press. 10.1525/california/9780520219885.003.0013
    https://doi.org/10.1525/california/9780520219885.003.0013 [Google Scholar]
  11. 2007 East and Southeast Asia. InRonald E. Asher & Christopher J. Moseley (eds.), Atlas of the world’s languages (2nd ed.), 159–208. London: Routledge.
    [Google Scholar]
  12. 2009 Language policy for China’s minorities: Orthography development for the Yi. Written Language & Literacy12(2).170–187. 10.1075/wll.12.2.03bra
    https://doi.org/10.1075/wll.12.2.03bra [Google Scholar]
  13. 2011a A survey of language endangerment. InPeter Austin & J. Sallabank (eds.), The Cambridge handbook of endangered languages, 66–77. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 10.1017/CBO9780511975981.004
    https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511975981.004 [Google Scholar]
  14. 2011b Problems in Orthography Development for the Yi in China. InJoshua Fishman & Ofelia Garcia, Handbook of language and ethnic identity (vol.2), 180–191. New York: Oxford University Press.
    [Google Scholar]
  15. 2012 The characteristics of the Burmic family of Tibeto-Burman. Language and Linguistics13(1). 71–92.
    [Google Scholar]
  16. Brown, James D.
    2013 Cut scores on language tests. InCarol A. Chapelle (ed.), The encyclopedia of applied linguistics, 1634–1639. Chicester, United Kingdom: Wiley-Blackwell.
    [Google Scholar]
  17. Canale, Michael & Merrill Swain
    1980 Theoretical bases of communicative competence to second language teaching and testing. Applied Linguistics1(1).1–47. 10.1093/applin/1.1.1
    https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/1.1.1 [Google Scholar]
  18. Chelliah, Shobhana & Willem de Reuse
    2011Handbook of descriptive linguistic fieldwork. London: Springer. 10.1007/978‑90‑481‑9026‑3
    https://doi.org/10.1007/978-90-481-9026-3 [Google Scholar]
  19. Chen, Kang & Wu Da
    1998Yiyu yufa [Grammar of Nuosu: Based on Shynra dialect]. Beijing: Central Minzu University Press.
    [Google Scholar]
  20. Chen, Shilin, Bian Shiming, & Li Xiuqing
    1985Yiyu jianzhi [A concise survey of Nuosu]. Beijing: Minzu Publishing House.
    [Google Scholar]
  21. Chomsky, Noam
    1965Aspects of the theory of syntax. Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press.
    [Google Scholar]
  22. Dai, Qingxia
    (ed.) 2011aYunnan dehongzhou jingpozu yuyan shiyong xianzhuang jiqi yanbian [Language use and change of Jingpho at Dehong, Yunnan]. Beijing: The Commercial Press.
    [Google Scholar]
  23. (ed.) 2011bLancang lahuzu yuyan shiyong xianzhuang jiqi yanbian [Language use and change of Lahu at Lancang]. Beijing: Commercial Press.
    [Google Scholar]
  24. Ding, Hongdi & Lijuan Yu
    2013 The dilemma: A study of bilingual education policy in Yi minority schools in Liangshan. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism16(4).451–470. 10.1080/13670050.2012.699943
    https://doi.org/10.1080/13670050.2012.699943 [Google Scholar]
  25. Ding, Hongdi
    2016 Testing the competence of first language(s): A cross-generational study of ethnic Nuosu in Liangshan, Sichuan. Hong Kong: The University of Hong Kong PhD thesis. https://hub.hku.hk/bitstream/10722/237182/1/FullText.pdf. 10.5353/th_b5807316
    https://doi.org/10.5353/th_b5807316
  26. 2018a A cross-dialectal analysis of Nuosu adjectival comparative construction. Linguistics of Tibeto-Burman Area41(1).45–74. 10.1075/ltba.16023.din
    https://doi.org/10.1075/ltba.16023.din [Google Scholar]
  27. 2018b Aspect marking in Niesu, a Tibeto-Burman language in Sichuan, China. Paper presented at The28th Annual Meeting of the Southeast Asian Linguistics Society, Wenzao Ursuline University of Languages, Kaohsiung, Taiwan, May 17–19, 2018.
    [Google Scholar]
  28. Ding, Sizhi Picus
    2007 Challenges in language modernization in China: The case of Prinmi. InDavid, Maya, Nicholas Ostler and Caesar Dealwis (eds.), Working Together for Endangered Languages: Research Challenges and Social Impacts, 120–126. Bath, England: Foundation for Endangered Languages.
    [Google Scholar]
  29. 2016Southern Min (Hokkien) as a migrating language: A comparative study of language shift and maintenance across national borders. Singapore: Springer. 10.1007/978‑981‑287‑594‑5
    https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-287-594-5 [Google Scholar]
  30. 2017 Language endangerment and loss of traditional knowledge: The case of Prinmi. InPicus Sizhi Ding & Jamin Pelkey (eds.), Sociohistorical linguistics in Southeast Asia, 53–73. Leiden: Brill. 10.1163/9789004350519_005
    https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004350519_005 [Google Scholar]
  31. Edmondson, Jerold A., John H. Esling & Ziwo Lama
    2017 Nuosu Yi. Journal of the International Phonetic Association47(1).87–97. 10.1017/S0025100315000444
    https://doi.org/10.1017/S0025100315000444 [Google Scholar]
  32. Ellis, Rod
    1994The study of second language acquisition. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
    [Google Scholar]
  33. Fishman, Joshua A.
    1991Reversing language shift: Theoretical and empirical foundations of assistance to threatened languages. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
    [Google Scholar]
  34. Gerner, Matthias
    2013Grammar of Nuosu. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. 10.1515/9783110308679
    https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110308679 [Google Scholar]
  35. Hutz, Matthias
    2004 Is there a natural process of decay: a longitudinal study of language attrition. InMonika S. Schmid, Barbara Köpke, Merel Keijzer & Lina Weilemar (eds.), First language attrition: Interdisciplinary perspectives on methodological issues, 189–206. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. 10.1075/sibil.28.11hut
    https://doi.org/10.1075/sibil.28.11hut [Google Scholar]
  36. Hymes, Dell H.
    1972 On communicative competence. InJohn B. Pride & Janet Holmes (eds.), Sociolinguistics, 269–293. London: Penguin.
    [Google Scholar]
  37. Lado, Robert
    1961Language testing. New York: McGraw-Hill.
    [Google Scholar]
  38. Lama, Ziwo
    1998 A phonetic and phonological overview of the Yi (Lolo) language. Arlington: University of Texas at Arlington MA thesis.
  39. 2012 Subgrouping of Nisoic (Yi) languages: A study from the perspectives of shared innovation and phylogenetic estimation. Arlington: University of Texas at Arlington PhD dissertation.
  40. Larsen-Freeman, Diane
    1997 Chaos/complexity science and second language acquisition. Applied Linguistics18(2). 41–165. 10.1093/applin/18.2.141
    https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/18.2.141 [Google Scholar]
  41. Lee, Nala Huiying & John Van Way
    2016 Assessing levels of endangerment in the Catalogue of Endangered Languages (ELCat) using the Language Endangerment Index (LEI). Language in Society45(2).271–292. 10.1017/S0047404515000962
    https://doi.org/10.1017/S0047404515000962 [Google Scholar]
  42. Lewis, Melvyn & Gary Simons
    2010 Assessing endangerment: Expanding Fishman’s GIDS. Revue Roumaine de Linguistique55.103–120.
    [Google Scholar]
  43. Lin, Yaohua
    1995Liangshan yizu de jubian [The change of the Liangshan Yi]. Beijing: The Commercial Press.
    [Google Scholar]
  44. Livingston, Samuel A. & Michael J. Zieky
    1982Passing scores: A manual for setting standards of performance on educational and occupational tests. Princeton, NJ: Educational Testing Service.
    [Google Scholar]
  45. Lord, Frederic M., & Melvin R. Novick
    1968Statistical theories of mental test scores. Reading, MA: Addison-Welsley Publishing Company.
    [Google Scholar]
  46. Ma, Linying, Dennis E. Walters, & Susan G. Walters
    2008Yi ying han changyong cihui [Nuosu Yi-Chinese-English glossary]. Beijing: Minzu Publishing House.
    [Google Scholar]
  47. Montrul, Silvina
    2016The acquisition of heritage languages. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. 10.1017/CBO9781139030502
    https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139030502 [Google Scholar]
  48. Müller, Natascha & Antje Pillunat
    2008 Balanced bilingual children with two weak languages: A French/German case study. InPedro Guijarro Fuentes, María P. Larrañaga & John Clibbens (eds.), First language acquisition of morphology and syntax: Perspectives across languages and learners, 269–294. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. 10.1075/lald.45.11mul
    https://doi.org/10.1075/lald.45.11mul [Google Scholar]
  49. Munai, Reha
    (ed.) 2015Ganluo minzu yuyan shiyong xianzhuang jiqi yanbian [The development and change of the use of minority languages in Ganluo]. Beijing: Commercial Press.
    [Google Scholar]
  50. O’Grady, William, Lee Miseon, & Choo Miho
    2001 The acquisition of relative clauses by heritage and non-heritage learners of Korean as a second language: A comparative study. Journal of Korean Language Education12(2).283–294.
    [Google Scholar]
  51. Polinsky, Maria
    2006 Incomplete acquisition: American Russian. Journal of Slavic Linguistics14.191–262.
    [Google Scholar]
  52. Purpura, James E.
    2004Assessing grammar. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 10.1017/CBO9780511733086
    https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511733086 [Google Scholar]
  53. Read, John
    2000Assessing vocabulary. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 10.1017/CBO9780511732942
    https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511732942 [Google Scholar]
  54. Rothman, Jason & Jeanine Treffers-Daller
    2014 A prolegomenon to the construct of the native speaker: Heritage speaker bilinguals are natives too!Applied Linguistics35.93–98. 10.1093/applin/amt049
    https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/amt049 [Google Scholar]
  55. Schmid, Monika S.
    2002First language attrition, use and maintenance: The case of German Jews in Anglophone countries. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. 10.1075/sibil.24
    https://doi.org/10.1075/sibil.24 [Google Scholar]
  56. 2011Language attrition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 10.1017/CBO9780511852046
    https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511852046 [Google Scholar]
  57. Schmidt, Annette
    1991 Language attrition in Boumaa Fijian and Dyirbal. InHerbert W. Seliger & Robert M. Vago (eds.), First language attrition, 113–124. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 10.1017/CBO9780511620720.008
    https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511620720.008 [Google Scholar]
  58. Shirai, Yasuhiro & Mary L. Vercellotti
    2013 Language acquisition and language assessment. InAntony John Kunnan (ed.), The companion to language assessment, 1477–1491. Malden, UK: Wiley Blackwell. 10.1002/9781118411360.wbcla134
    https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118411360.wbcla134 [Google Scholar]
  59. Sorace, Antonella & Frank Keller
    2005 Gradience in linguistic data. Lingua, 115. 1497–1524. 10.1016/j.lingua.2004.07.002
    https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lingua.2004.07.002 [Google Scholar]
  60. Swadesh, Morris
    1952 Lexico-statistical dating of prehistoric ethnic contacts: with special reference to North American Indians and Eskimos. Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, 96.452–463.
    [Google Scholar]
  61. Teng, Xing
    2001Wenhua bianqian he shuangyu jiaoyu [Cultural change and bilingual education]. Beijing: Educational Science Press.
    [Google Scholar]
  62. Tsunoda, Tasaku
    2005Language endangerment and language revitalization: An introduction. Berlin: Mouton De Gruyter.
    [Google Scholar]
  63. Xu, Xiaoying
    2007Yuyan Zhengce he Shequn Yuyan: Xinjiapo Fujian Shequn Shehui Yuyanxue Yanjiu [Language policy and community language: Aspects of the sociolinguistic survey of the Hokkien community in Singapore]. Beijing: China Book Bureau.
    [Google Scholar]
http://instance.metastore.ingenta.com/content/journals/10.1075/ltba.17014.din
Loading
/content/journals/10.1075/ltba.17014.din
Loading

Data & Media loading...

Keyword(s): bilingual competence; grammatical description; lesser-known languages; native language; Nuosu

Most Cited