1887
  1. Home
  2. e-Journals
  3. The Mental Lexicon
  4. Volume 19, Issue 3
  5. Article
Volume 19, Issue 3
  • ISSN 1871-1340
  • E-ISSN: 1871-1375
USD
Buy:$35.00 + Taxes

Abstract

Abstract

Speakers of multiple languages must store the respective lexical items efficiently to enable correct access. Importantly, all items must be linked to semantic information and world knowledge. One prominent model of the mental lexicon of late bilinguals is the Revised Hierarchical Model (Kroll & Stewart, 1994), which postulates bidirectional but asymmetrical connections between separate stores for L1 (native language) and L2 (second/foreign language), and a shared conceptual store. Using German native speakers with advanced English proficiency, Experiment 1 largely confirmed model predictions regarding different preferred mental routes and processing times depending on translation direction. Moreover, the original design was extended by including abstract stimuli and picture naming in L2. A series of additional measures, such as proficiency and age of acquisition, served to specify the language experience of the participants and made it possible to compare the results with a group of non-native speakers of German (Experiment 2). Interestingly, the results suggest that the model also applies to two or more non-native languages, potentially influenced by the experimental and environmental language context.

© John Benjamins Publishing Company
Loading

Article metrics loading...

/content/journals/10.1075/ml.23018.spe
2024-07-12
2025-05-20

  • From This Site

    /content/journals/10.1075/ml.23018.spe
    dcterms_title,dcterms_subject,pub_keyword
    -contentType:Journal -contentType:Contributor -contentType:Concept -contentType:Institution
    10
    5
Loading full text...

Full text loading...

References

  1. Abunuwara, E.
    (1992) The structure of the trilingual lexicon. European Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 4(4), 311–322. 10.1080/09541449208406190
     https://doi.org/10.1080/09541449208406190 [Google Scholar]
  2. Abutalebi, J.
    (2008) Neural aspects of second language representation and language control. Acta Psychologica, 128(3), 466–478. 10.1016/j.actpsy.2008.03.014
     https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actpsy.2008.03.014 [Google Scholar]
  3. Altarriba, J., & Basnight-Brown, D. M.
    (2009) An overview of semantic processing in bilinguals: Methods and findings. The Bilingual Mental Lexicon: Interdisciplinary Approaches, 79–99. 10.21832/9781847691262‑006
     https://doi.org/10.21832/9781847691262-006 [Google Scholar]
  4. Altarriba, J., & Mathis, K. M.
    (1997) Conceptual and lexical development in second language acquisition. Journal of Memory and Language, 36(4), 550–568. 10.1006/jmla.1997.2493
     https://doi.org/10.1006/jmla.1997.2493 [Google Scholar]
  5. Aronin, L., & Jessner, U.
    (2014) Methodology in Bi- and Multilingual Studies: From simplification to complexity. AILA Review, 271. 10.1075/aila.27.03aro
     https://doi.org/10.1075/aila.27.03aro [Google Scholar]
  6. Bates, D., Mächler, M., Bolker, B., & Walker, S.
    (2015) Fitting Linear Mixed-Effects Models Using lme4. Journal of Statistical Software, 67(1). 10.18637/jss.v067.i01
     https://doi.org/10.18637/jss.v067.i01 [Google Scholar]
  7. Beatty-Martínez, A. L., Navarro-Torres, C. A., Dussias, P. E., Bajo, M. T., Guzzardo Tamargo, R. E., & Kroll, J. F.
    (2020) Interactional context mediates the consequences of bilingualism for language and cognition. Journal of Experimental Psychology. Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 46(6), 1022–1047. 10.1037/xlm0000770
     https://doi.org/10.1037/xlm0000770 [Google Scholar]
  8. Bialystok, E., Craik, F. I. M., Green, D. W., & Gollan, T. H.
    (2009) Bilingual Minds. Psychological Science in the Public Interest: A Journal of the American Psychological Society, 10(3), 89–129. 10.1177/1529100610387084
     https://doi.org/10.1177/1529100610387084 [Google Scholar]
  9. Bialystok, E., Craik, F. I. M., & Luk, G.
    (2012) Bilingualism: Consequences for Mind and Brain. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 16(4), 240–250. 10.1016/j.tics.2012.03.001
     https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2012.03.001 [Google Scholar]
  10. Birdsong, D.
    (2014) Dominance and age in bilingualism. Applied Linguistics, 35(4), 374–392. 10.1093/applin/amu031
     https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/amu031 [Google Scholar]
  11. Boersma, P., & Weenink, D.
    (2016) Praat: doing phonetics by computer [Computer software] (Version 6.0.18) [Computer software]. www.praat.org/
     [Google Scholar]
  12. Brodeur, M. B., Dionne-Dostie, E., Montreuil, T., & Lepage, M.
    (2010) The Bank of Standardized Stimuli (BOSS), a new set of 480 normative photos of objects to be used as visual stimuli in cognitive research. PloS One, 5(5), 1–13. 10.1371/journal.pone.0010773
     https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0010773 [Google Scholar]
  13. Brysbaert, M., & Duyck, W.
    (2010) Is it time to leave behind the Revised Hierarchical Model of bilingual language processing after fifteen years of service?Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 13(03), 359–371. 10.1017/S1366728909990344
     https://doi.org/10.1017/S1366728909990344 [Google Scholar]
  14. Butler, Y. G.
    (2013) Bilingualism/multilingualism and second-language acquisition. The Handbook of Bilingualism and Multilingualism, 109–136.
     [Google Scholar]
  15. Bylund, E., Khafif, Z., & Berghoff, R.
    (2023) Linguistic and geographic diversity in research on second language acquisition and multilingualism: An analysis of selected journals. Applied Linguistics, Article amad022, 1–26. 10.1093/applin/amad022
     https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/amad022 [Google Scholar]
  16. Chou, I., Liu, K., & Zhao, N.
    (2021) Effects of Directionality on Interpreting Performance: Evidence From Interpreting Between Chinese and English by Trainee Interpreters. Frontiers in Psychology, 121, 781610. 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.781610
     https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.781610 [Google Scholar]
  17. Clenton, J.
    (2015) Testing the Revised Hierarchical Model: Evidence from word associations. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 18(01), 118–125. 10.1017/S136672891400008X
     https://doi.org/10.1017/S136672891400008X [Google Scholar]
  18. Council of Europe, Modern Languages Division
    Council of Europe, Modern Languages Division (2001) Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: learning, teaching, assessment. Cambridge University Press.
     [Google Scholar]
  19. Crystal, D.
    (2010) The Cambridge encyclopedia of language (3rd edition). Cambridge University Press.
     [Google Scholar]
  20. de Bot, K.
    (2004) The multilingual lexicon: Modelling selection and control. International Journal of Multilingualism, 1(1), 17–32. 10.1080/14790710408668176
     https://doi.org/10.1080/14790710408668176 [Google Scholar]
  21. de Groot, A. M.
    (1992) Determinants of word translation. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 18(5), 1001–1018.
     [Google Scholar]
  22. de Groot, A. M., & Hoeks, J. C. J.
    (1995) The development of bilingual memory: Evidence from word translation by trilinguals. Language Learning, 45(4), 683–724. 10.1111/j.1467‑1770.1995.tb00458.x
     https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-1770.1995.tb00458.x [Google Scholar]
  23. de Groot, A. M., & Poot, R.
    (1997) Word translation at three levels of proficiency in a second language: The ubiquitous involvement of conceptual memory. Language Learning, 47(2), 215–264. 10.1111/0023‑8333.71997007
     https://doi.org/10.1111/0023-8333.71997007 [Google Scholar]
  24. DeLuca, V., Rothman, J., Bialystok, E., & Pliatsikas, C.
    (2019) Redefining bilingualism as a spectrum of experiences that differentially affects brain structure and function. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 116(15), 7565–7574. 10.1073/pnas.1811513116
     https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1811513116 [Google Scholar]
  25. Dijkstra, T., & van Heuven, W. J. B.
    (2002) The architecture of the bilingual word recognition system: From identification to decision. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 5(3), 175–197. 10.1017/S1366728902003012
     https://doi.org/10.1017/S1366728902003012 [Google Scholar]
  26. Dijkstra, T., Wahl, A., Buytenhuijs, F., van Halem, N., Al-Jibouri, Z., de Korte, M., & Rekké, S.
    (2019) Multilink: a computational model for bilingual word recognition and word translation. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 22(04), 657–679. 10.1017/S1366728918000287
     https://doi.org/10.1017/S1366728918000287 [Google Scholar]
  27. Dong, Y., Gui, S., & MacWhinney, B.
    (2005) Shared and separate meanings in the bilingual mental lexicon. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 8(3), 221–238. 10.1017/S1366728905002270
     https://doi.org/10.1017/S1366728905002270 [Google Scholar]
  28. Duyck, W., & Brysbaert, M.
    (2004) Forward and backward number translation requires conceptual mediation in both balanced and unbalanced bilinguals. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 30(5), 889–906. 10.1037/0096‑1523.30.5.889
     https://doi.org/10.1037/0096-1523.30.5.889 [Google Scholar]
  29. Edwards, J.
    (2012) Multilingualism: Understanding Linguistic Diversity. Bloomsbury Publishing. 10.5040/9781472541697
     https://doi.org/10.5040/9781472541697 [Google Scholar]
  30. Ellis, N. C.
    (Ed.) (1994) Implicit and explicit learning of languages (2. print). Acad. Press.
     [Google Scholar]
  31. Elston-Güttler, K. E., Gunter, T. C., & Kotz, S. A.
    (2005) Zooming into L2: Global language context and adjustment affect processing of interlingual homographs in sentences. Brain Research. Cognitive Brain Research, 25(1), 57–70. 10.1016/j.cogbrainres.2005.04.007
     https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cogbrainres.2005.04.007 [Google Scholar]
  32. Ferreira, A., & Schwieter, J. W.
    (2014) Underlying processes of L1 and L3 word translation: Exploring the semantic relatedness effect. InJ. W. Schwieter, A. Ferreira, & B. Bailey (Eds.), The development of translation competence: Theories and methodologies from psycholinguistics and cognitive science (pp.87–106). Cambridge Scholars Publishing.
     [Google Scholar]
  33. Franceschini, R.
    (2002) Das Gehirn als Kulturinskription. InJ. Müller-Lancé & C. M. Riehl (Eds.), Editiones EuroCom: Vol. 9. Ein Kopf – viele Sprachen: Koexistenz, Interaktion und Vermittlung: Une tête – plusieurs langues: coexistence, interaction et enseignement (pp.45–62). Shaker.
     [Google Scholar]
  34. Francis, W. S., & Gallard, S. L. K.
    (2005) Concept mediation in trilingual translation: Evidence from response time and repetition priming patterns. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 12(6), 1082–1088. 10.3758/BF03206447
     https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03206447 [Google Scholar]
  35. Friederici, A. D.
    (2017) Language in our brain: The origins of a uniquely human capacity. MIT Press. 10.7551/mitpress/9780262036924.001.0001
     https://doi.org/10.7551/mitpress/9780262036924.001.0001 [Google Scholar]
  36. García-Pentón, L., Fernández García, Y., Costello, B., Duñabeitia, J. A., & Carreiras, M.
    (2016) The neuroanatomy of bilingualism: how to turn a hazy view into the full picture. Language, Cognition and Neuroscience, 31(3), 303–327. 10.1080/23273798.2015.1068944
     https://doi.org/10.1080/23273798.2015.1068944 [Google Scholar]
  37. Gibson, K.
    (2019) Lexical connections among heritage speakers and L2 learners [Dissertation]. Florida State University, Tallahassee.
  38. Gollan, T. H., Montoya, R. I., Cera, C., & Sandoval, T. C.
    (2008) More use almost always a means a smaller frequency effect: Aging, bilingualism, and the weaker links hypothesis. Journal of Memory and Language, 58(3), 787–814. 10.1016/j.jml.2007.07.001
     https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jml.2007.07.001 [Google Scholar]
  39. Green, D. W.
    (1998) Mental control of the bilingual lexico-semantic system. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 1(02), 67–81. 10.1017/S1366728998000133
     https://doi.org/10.1017/S1366728998000133 [Google Scholar]
  40. Groot, A. M. B. de, & Hoeks, J. C. J.
    (1995) The Development of Bilingual Memory: Evidence from Word Translation by Trilinguals. Language Learning, 45(4), 683–724. 10.1111/j.1467‑1770.1995.tb00458.x
     https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-1770.1995.tb00458.x [Google Scholar]
  41. Grosjean, F.
    (1998) Studying bilinguals: Methodological and conceptual issues. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 1(2), 131–149. 10.1017/S136672899800025X
     https://doi.org/10.1017/S136672899800025X [Google Scholar]
  42. Heredia, R. R.
    (1996) Bilingual memory: A re-revised version of the hierarchical model of bilingual memory. CRL Newsletter, 101, pp.1–3.
     [Google Scholar]
  43. (1997) Bilingual memory and hierarchical models: A case for language dominance. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 6(2), 34–39. 10.1111/1467‑8721.ep11512617
     https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8721.ep11512617 [Google Scholar]
  44. Hernandez, A. E., & Li, P.
    (2007) Age of acquisition: Its neural and computational mechanisms. Psychological Bulletin, 133(4), 638–650. 10.1037/0033‑2909.133.4.638
     https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.133.4.638 [Google Scholar]
  45. JASP Team
    JASP Team (2023) JASP (Version 0.17.1.) [Computer software]. https://jasp-stats.org/
     [Google Scholar]
  46. Kemp, C.
    (2009) Defining multilingualism. The Exploration of Multilingualism: Development of Research on L3, Multilingualism and Multiple Language Acquisition, 61, 11. 10.1075/aals.6.02ch2
     https://doi.org/10.1075/aals.6.02ch2 [Google Scholar]
  47. Krashen, S. D.
    (1983) Second language acquisition and second language learning. Pergamon Press Inc.
     [Google Scholar]
  48. Kroll, J. F., Michael, E., Tokowicz, N., & Dufour, R.
    (2002) The development of lexical fluency in a second language. Second Language Research, 18(2), 137–171. 10.1191/0267658302sr201oa
     https://doi.org/10.1191/0267658302sr201oa [Google Scholar]
  49. Kroll, J. F., & Stewart, E.
    (1994) Category Inference in Translation and Picture Naming: Evidence for Asymmetric Connections between Bilingual Memory Representations. Journal of Memory and Language (33), 149–174. 10.1006/jmla.1994.1008
     https://doi.org/10.1006/jmla.1994.1008 [Google Scholar]
  50. Kroll, J. F., & Tokowicz, N.
    (2001) The Development of Conceptual Representation for Words in a Second Language. InExplaining linguistics. One mind, two languages: Bilingual language processing (pp.49–71). Blackwell Publishing.
     [Google Scholar]
  51. (2005) Models of bilingual representation and processing. Handbook of Bilingualism: Psycholinguistic Approaches, 531–553.
     [Google Scholar]
  52. Kroll, J. F., van Hell, J. G., Tokowicz, N., & Green, D. W.
    (2010) The Revised Hierarchical Model: A critical review and assessment. Bilingualism, 13(3), 373–381. 10.1017/S136672891000009X
     https://doi.org/10.1017/S136672891000009X [Google Scholar]
  53. Kushalnagar, P., Hannay, H. J., & Hernandez, A. E.
    (2010) Bilingualism and attention: A study of balanced and unbalanced bilingual deaf users of American Sign Language and English. Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education, 15(3), 263–273. 10.1093/deafed/enq011
     https://doi.org/10.1093/deafed/enq011 [Google Scholar]
  54. Kuznetsova, A., Brockhoff, P. B., & Christensen, R. H. B.
    (2017) lmerTest Package: Tests in Linear Mixed Effects Models. Journal of Statistical Software, 82(13). 10.18637/jss.v082.i13
     https://doi.org/10.18637/jss.v082.i13 [Google Scholar]
  55. La Heij, W., & Akerboom, S. P.
    (2007) Word comprehension in a second language: A direct or an indirect route to meaning?Psychological Reports, 100(3 Pt 1), 838–846. 10.2466/pr0.100.3.838‑846
     https://doi.org/10.2466/pr0.100.3.838-846 [Google Scholar]
  56. La Heij, W., Hooglander, A., Kerling, R., & van der Velden, E.
    (1996) Nonverbal context effects in forward and backward word translation: Evidence for concept mediation. Journal of Memory and Language, 35(5), 648–665. 10.1006/jmla.1996.0034
     https://doi.org/10.1006/jmla.1996.0034 [Google Scholar]
  57. Lauro, J., & Schwartz, A. I.
    (2017) Bilingual non-selective lexical access in sentence contexts: A meta-analytic review. Journal of Memory and Language, 921, 217–233. 10.1016/j.jml.2016.06.010
     https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jml.2016.06.010 [Google Scholar]
  58. Leiner, D. J.
    (2014) SoSci Survey (Version 2.5.00-i) [Computer software]. https://www.soscisurvey.de
     [Google Scholar]
  59. Lenth, R.
    (2023) emmeans (Version 1.8.5) [R Package]. https://CRAN.R-project.org/package=emmeans
     [Google Scholar]
  60. Levelt, W. J. M.
    (1989) Speaking: From intention to articulation (ACL-MIT Press series in natural-language processing). The MIT Press. 10.7551/mitpress/6393.001.0001
     https://doi.org/10.7551/mitpress/6393.001.0001 [Google Scholar]
  61. Libben, G., & Schwieter, J. W.
    (2019) Lexical Organization and Reorganization in the Multilingual Mind. InThe Handbook of the Neuroscience of Multilingualism (pp.297–312). John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. 10.1002/9781119387725.ch14
     https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119387725.ch14 [Google Scholar]
  62. Linck, J., Michael, E., Golonka, E., Twist, A., & Schwieter, J. W.
    (2015) Moving beyond two languages. InJ. W. Schwieter (Ed.), Cambridge handbooks in language and linguistics. The Cambridge Handbook of Bilingual Processing (pp.665–694). Cambridge University Press. 10.1017/CBO9781107447257.030
     https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781107447257.030 [Google Scholar]
  63. Luk, G., & Bialystok, E.
    (2013) Bilingualism is not a categorical variable: Interaction between language proficiency and usage. Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 25(5), 605–621. 10.1080/20445911.2013.795574
     https://doi.org/10.1080/20445911.2013.795574 [Google Scholar]
  64. MacWhinney, B.
    (2005) A unified model of language acquisition. Handbook of Bilingualism: Psycholinguistic Approaches, 49671.
     [Google Scholar]
  65. Marslen-Wilson, W. D.
    (1987) Functional parallelism in spoken word-recognition. Cognition, 25(1–2), 71–102. 10.1016/0010‑0277(87)90005‑9
     https://doi.org/10.1016/0010-0277(87)90005-9 [Google Scholar]
  66. Menenti, L., & Indefrey, P.
    (2006) L2-L1 word association in bilinguals: Direct evidence. Nijmegen CNS, 1(1), 17–24.
     [Google Scholar]
  67. Morgan-Short, K., Steinhauer, K., Sanz, C., & Ullman, M. T.
    (2011) Explicit and Implicit Second Language Training Differentially Affect the Achievement of Native-like Brain Activation Patterns. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 24(4), 933–947. 10.1162/jocn_a_00119
     https://doi.org/10.1162/jocn_a_00119 [Google Scholar]
  68. Nas, G.
    (1983) Visual word recognition in bilinguals: Evidence for a cooperation between visual and sound based codes during access to a common lexical store. Journal of Memory and Language, 22(5), 526–534. 10.1016/S0022‑5371(83)90319‑5
     https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-5371(83)90319-5 [Google Scholar]
  69. Ni, C., & Jin, X.
    (2020) Could L2 Lexical Attrition Be Predicted in the Dimension of Valence, Arousal, and Dominance?Frontiers in Psychology, 111, 552140. 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.552140
     https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.552140 [Google Scholar]
  70. Paivio, A., Clark, J. M., & Lambert, W. E.
    (1988) Bilingual dual-coding theory and semantic repetition effects on recall. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 14(1), 163–172. 10.1037/0278‑7393.14.1.163
     https://doi.org/10.1037/0278-7393.14.1.163 [Google Scholar]
  71. Palmer, S. D., van Hooff, J. C., & Havelka, J.
    (2010) Language representation and processing in fluent bilinguals: Electrophysiological evidence for asymmetric mapping in bilingual memory. Neuropsychologia, 48(5), 1426–1437. 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2010.01.010
     https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2010.01.010 [Google Scholar]
  72. Pavlenko, A.
    (2005) Bilingualism and thought. Handbook of Bilingualism: Psycholinguistic Approaches, 4334531.
     [Google Scholar]
  73. (2009) The bilingual mental lexicon: Interdisciplinary approaches. Multilingual Matters. 10.21832/9781847691262
     https://doi.org/10.21832/9781847691262 [Google Scholar]
  74. Pelham, S. D., & Abrams, L.
    (2014) Cognitive advantages and disadvantages in early and late bilinguals. Journal of Experimental Psychology. Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 40(2), 313–325. 10.1037/a0035224
     https://doi.org/10.1037/a0035224 [Google Scholar]
  75. Perani, D., & Abutalebi, J.
    (2005) The neural basis of first and second language processing. Current Opinion in Neurobiology, 15(2), 202–206. 10.1016/j.conb.2005.03.007
     https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conb.2005.03.007 [Google Scholar]
  76. Poarch, G. J., van Hell, J. G., & Kroll, J. F.
    (2015) Accessing word meaning in beginning second language learners: Lexical or conceptual mediation?Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 18(3), 357–371. 10.1017/S1366728914000558
     https://doi.org/10.1017/S1366728914000558 [Google Scholar]
  77. Potter, M. C., So, K.-F., Eckardt, B. V., & Feldman, L. B.
    (1984) Lexical and conceptual representation in beginning and proficient bilinguals. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 23(1), 23–38. 10.1016/S0022‑5371(84)90489‑4
     https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-5371(84)90489-4 [Google Scholar]
  78. Psychology Software Tools Inc
    Psychology Software Tools Inc (2012) E-Prime 2.0 (Version 2.0) [Computer software]. www.pstnet.com
     [Google Scholar]
  79. R Core Team
    R Core Team. R [Computer software]. R Foundation for Statistical Computing. https://www.R-project.org/
     [Google Scholar]
  80. Revelle, W.
    (2022) psych (Version 2.2.9) [R Package]. https://CRAN.R-project.org/package=psych
     [Google Scholar]
  81. Riehl, C. M.
    (2015) Mehrsprachigkeit: Eine Einführung. WBG – Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft.
     [Google Scholar]
  82. Sánchez-Casas, R., & García-Albea, J. E.
    (2005) The representation of cognate and noncognate words in bilingual memory. Handbook of Bilingualism: Psycholinguistic Approaches, 226–250.
     [Google Scholar]
  83. Schwartz, A. I., Kroll, J. F., & Diaz, M.
    (2007) Reading words in Spanish and English: Mapping orthography to phonology in two languages. Language and Cognitive Processes, 22(1), 106–129. 10.1080/01690960500463920
     https://doi.org/10.1080/01690960500463920 [Google Scholar]
  84. Sholl, A., Sankaranarayanan, A., & Kroll, J. F.
    (1995) Transfer between Picture Naming and Translation: A Test of Asymmetries in Bilingual Memory. Psychological Science, 6(1), 45–49. 10.1111/j.1467‑9280.1995.tb00303.x
     https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.1995.tb00303.x [Google Scholar]
  85. Sperl, L., Tomé, M. S. N., Kühn, H., & Kreysa, H.
    (2024) Context Matters: How Experimental Language and Language Environment Affect Mental Representations in Multilingualism. Languages, 9(3), 106. 10.3390/languages9030106
     https://doi.org/10.3390/languages9030106 [Google Scholar]
  86. Sullivan, M. D., Poarch, G. J., & Bialystok, E.
    (2018) Why is Lexical Retrieval Slower for Bilinguals? Evidence from Picture Naming. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 21(3), 479–488. 10.1017/S1366728917000694
     https://doi.org/10.1017/S1366728917000694 [Google Scholar]
  87. Talamas, A., Kroll, J. F., & Dufour, R.
    (1999) From form to meaning: Stages in the acquisition of second-language vocabulary. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 2(1), 45–58. 10.1017/S1366728999000140
     https://doi.org/10.1017/S1366728999000140 [Google Scholar]
  88. Tokowicz, N., & Kroll, J. F.
    (2007) Number of meanings and concreteness: Consequences of ambiguity within and across languages. Language and Cognitive Processes, 22(5), 727–779. 10.1080/01690960601057068
     https://doi.org/10.1080/01690960601057068 [Google Scholar]
  89. Tytus, A. E., & Rundblad, G.
    (2016) Cross-language priming as a means of investigating bilingual conceptual representations. Linguistic Approaches to Bilingualism, 6(4), 440–466. 10.1075/lab.14020.tyt
     https://doi.org/10.1075/lab.14020.tyt [Google Scholar]
  90. van Hell, J. G., & Dijkstra, T.
    (2002) Foreign language knowledge can influence native language performance in exclusively native contexts. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 9(4), 780–789. 10.3758/BF03196335
     https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03196335 [Google Scholar]
  91. van Hell, J. G., & Tanner, D.
    (2012) Second Language Proficiency and Cross-Language Lexical Activation. Language Learning, 62(s2), 148–171. 10.1111/j.1467‑9922.2012.00710.x
     https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9922.2012.00710.x [Google Scholar]
  92. Vega-Mendoza, M., West, H., Sorace, A., & Bak, T. H.
    (2015) The impact of late, non-balanced bilingualism on cognitive performance. Cognition, 1371, 40–46. 10.1016/j.cognition.2014.12.008
     https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2014.12.008 [Google Scholar]
  93. Venables, W. N., & Ripley, B. D.
    (2002) Modern applied statistics with S with 152 illustrations (4th ed.). Statistics and computing. Springer. 10.1007/978‑0‑387‑21706‑2
     https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-21706-2 [Google Scholar]
  94. Wang, X.
    (2013) Language dominance in translation priming: Evidence from balanced and unbalanced Chinese–English bilinguals. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 66(4), 727–743. 10.1080/17470218.2012.716072
     https://doi.org/10.1080/17470218.2012.716072 [Google Scholar]
  95. Wattendorf, E., Festman, J., Westermann, B., Keil, U., Zappatore, D., Franceschini, R., Luedi, G., Radue, E.-W., Münte, T. F., Rager, G., & Nitsch, C.
    (2012) Early bilingualism influences early and subsequently later acquired languages in cortical regions representing control functions. International Journal of Bilingualism, 18(1), 48–66. 10.1177/1367006912456590
     https://doi.org/10.1177/1367006912456590 [Google Scholar]
  96. Wigdorowitz, M., Pérez, A. I., & Tsimpli, I. M.
    (2023) A holistic measure of contextual and individual linguistic diversity. International Journal of Multilingualism, 20(2), 469–487. 10.1080/14790718.2020.1835921
     https://doi.org/10.1080/14790718.2020.1835921 [Google Scholar]
  97. Wu, Y. J., & Thierry, G.
    (2010) Investigating bilingual processing: The neglected role of language processing contexts. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 178. 10.3389/fpsyg.2010.00178
     https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2010.00178 [Google Scholar]
/content/journals/10.1075/ml.23018.spe
Loading
Mental representation of words and concepts in late multilingualism
The Mental Lexicon 19, 372 (2024); https://doi.org/10.1075/ml.23018.spe
/content/journals/10.1075/ml.23018.spe
/content/journals/10.1075/ml.23018.spe
Loading

Data & Media loading...

  • Article Type: Research Article
Keyword(s): Conceptual Store; Mental Representation; Multilingualism; Picture Naming; Revised Hierarchical Model; Translation

Most Cited

This is a required field
Please enter a valid email address
Approval was successful
Invalid data
An Error Occurred
Approval was partially successful, following selected items could not be processed due to error