1887
  1. Home
  2. e-Journals
  3. Review of Cognitive Linguistics. Published under the auspices of the Spanish Cognitive Linguistics Association
  4. Volume 21, Issue 2
  5. Article
Volume 21, Issue 2
  • ISSN 1877-9751
  • E-ISSN: 1877-976X
USD
Buy:$35.00 + Taxes

Abstract

Abstract

When spatializing time, individuals can either say that they walk towards the future as though time is a stationary landscape (called ego-moving perspective), or that the future time moves towards them (called time-moving perspective). A substantial body of experimental research has shown that people’s adoption of these two temporal perspectives may be malleable, influenced by a broad set of factors. In the current research, we examined the novel possibility that the mere crowdedness of the environment can influence people’s abstract thinking about time. We contended that exposure to the crowd may be linked to increased anxiety, which can in turn lead to a greater preference for the time-moving perspective in the resolution of temporal ambiguity. Two experiments found that social crowding, whether induced via a visualization task or through an assignment to a crowded workstation, was sufficient to alter participants’ perspectives on the movement of events in time. Further, we found that anxiety mediated the relationship between crowdedness and temporal reasoning. Taken together, these results offer unique insights into the cognitive consequences of social crowding and provide a more complete understanding of how people adduce temporal relationship.

© John Benjamins Publishing Company
Loading

Article metrics loading...

/content/journals/10.1075/rcl.00144.li
2023-03-02
2024-12-05

  • From This Site

    /content/journals/10.1075/rcl.00144.li
    dcterms_title,dcterms_subject,pub_keyword
    -contentType:Journal -contentType:Contributor -contentType:Concept -contentType:Institution
    10
    5
Loading full text...

Full text loading...

References

  1. Alcaraz Carrión, D., & Valenzuela, J.
    (2022) Time as space vs. time as quantity in Spanish: a co-speech gesture study. Language and Cognition, 14(1), 1–18. 10.1017/langcog.2021.17
     https://doi.org/10.1017/langcog.2021.17 [Google Scholar]
  2. Bargh, J. A., & Melnikoff, D.
    (2019) Does physical warmth prime social warmth?. Social Psychology, 50(3), 207–210. 10.1027/1864‑9335/a000387
     https://doi.org/10.1027/1864-9335/a000387 [Google Scholar]
  3. Baum, A., & Koman, S.
    (1976) Differential response to anticipated crowding: Psychological effects of social and spatial density. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 34(3), 526. 10.1037/0022‑3514.34.3.526
     https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.34.3.526 [Google Scholar]
  4. Baxter, J. C., & Deanovich, B. F.
    (1970) Anxiety arousing effects of inappropriate crowding. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 35(2), 17–178. 10.1037/h0030066
     https://doi.org/10.1037/h0030066 [Google Scholar]
  5. Bender, A., & Beller, S.
    (2014) Mapping spatial frames of reference onto time: A review of theoretical accounts and empirical findings. Cognition, 132(3), 342–382. 10.1016/j.cognition.2014.03.016
     https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2014.03.016 [Google Scholar]
  6. Boroditsky, L.
    (2018) Language and the construction of time through space. Trends in Neurosciences, 41(10), 651–653. 10.1016/j.tins.2018.08.004
     https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2018.08.004 [Google Scholar]
  7. Boroditsky, L., & Ramscar, M.
    (2002) The roles of body and mind in abstract thought. Psychological Science, 13(2), 185–189. 10.1111/1467‑9280.00434
     https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9280.00434 [Google Scholar]
  8. Cacioppo, J. T., Gardner, W. L., & Berntson, G. G.
    (1999) The affect system has parallel and integrative processing components: Form follows function. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 76(5), 839–855. 10.1037/0022‑3514.76.5.839
     https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.76.5.839 [Google Scholar]
  9. Chabris, C., Heck, P. R., Mandart, J., Benjamin, D., & Simons, D.
    (2019) No evidence that experiencing psychical warmth promotes interpersonal warmth: Two failures to replicate Willams & Bargh (2008). Social Psychology, 501, 127–132. 10.1027/1864‑9335/a000361
     https://doi.org/10.1027/1864-9335/a000361 [Google Scholar]
  10. Clark, H. H.
    (1973) Space, time, semantics, and the child. InT. E. Moore (Ed.), Cognitive development and the acquisition of language (pp.27–63). New York: Academic Press. 10.1016/B978‑0‑12‑505850‑6.50008‑6
     https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-505850-6.50008-6 [Google Scholar]
  11. Consiglio, I., De Angelis, M., & Costabile, M.
    (2018) The effect of social density on word of mouth. Journal of Consumer Research, 45(3), 511–528. 10.1093/jcr/ucy009
     https://doi.org/10.1093/jcr/ucy009 [Google Scholar]
  12. Cooperrider, K., Slotta, J., & Núñez, R.
    (2022) The ups and downs of space and time: Topography in Yupno language, culture, and cognition. Language and Cognition, 14(1), 131–159. 10.1017/langcog.2021.25
     https://doi.org/10.1017/langcog.2021.25 [Google Scholar]
  13. Duffy, S. E., & Feist, M. I.
    (2014) Individual differences in the interpretation of ambiguous statements about time. Cognitive Linguistics, 25(1), 29–54. 10.1515/cog‑2013‑0030
     https://doi.org/10.1515/cog-2013-0030 [Google Scholar]
  14. Duffy, S. E., Feist, M. I., & McCarthy, S.
    (2014) Moving through time: The role of personality in three real-life contexts. Cognitive Science, 38(8), 1662–1674. 10.1111/cogs.12124
     https://doi.org/10.1111/cogs.12124 [Google Scholar]
  15. Duffy, S. E., & Feist, M. I.
    (2017) Power in time: The influence of power posing on metaphoric perspectives on time. Language and Cognition, 9(4), 637–647. 10.1017/langcog.2016.33
     https://doi.org/10.1017/langcog.2016.33 [Google Scholar]
  16. Elliot, A. J.
    (1999) Approach and avoidance motivation and achievement goals. Educational Psychologist, 34(3), 149–169. 10.1207/s15326985ep3403_3
     https://doi.org/10.1207/s15326985ep3403_3 [Google Scholar]
  17. Elliot, A. J., & Thrash, T. M.
    (2002) Approach-avoidance motivation in personality: Approach and avoidance temperaments and goals. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 82(5), 804–818. 10.1037/0022‑3514.82.5.804
     https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.82.5.804 [Google Scholar]
  18. Eroglu, S. A., Machleit, K., & Barr, T. F.
    (2005) Perceived retail crowding and shopping satisfaction: the role of shopping values. Journal of Business Research, 58(8), 1146–1153. 10.1016/j.jbusres.2004.01.005
     https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2004.01.005 [Google Scholar]
  19. Evans, G. W., & Lepore, S. J.
    (1992) Conceptual and analytic issues in crowding research. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 12(2), 163–173. 10.1016/S0272‑4944(05)80068‑4
     https://doi.org/10.1016/S0272-4944(05)80068-4 [Google Scholar]
  20. Evans, G. W., & Wener, R. E.
    (2007) Crowding and personal space invasion on the train: Please don’t make me sit in the middle. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 27(1), 90–94. 10.1016/j.jenvp.2006.10.002
     https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2006.10.002 [Google Scholar]
  21. Evans, G. W., Ricciuti, H. N., Hope, S., Schoon, I., Bradley, R. H., Corwyn, R. F., & Hazan, C.
    (2010) Crowding and cognitive development: The mediating role of maternal responsiveness among 36-month-old children. Environment and Behavior, 42(1), 135–148. 10.1177/0013916509333509
     https://doi.org/10.1177/0013916509333509 [Google Scholar]
  22. Gelbrich, K., & Sattler, B.
    (2014) Anxiety, crowding, and time pressure in public self-service technology acceptance. Journal of Services Marketing28(1), 82–94. 10.1108/JSM‑02‑2012‑0051
     https://doi.org/10.1108/JSM-02-2012-0051 [Google Scholar]
  23. Glick, P., Demorest, J. A., & Hotze, C. A.
    (1988) Keeping your distance: group membership, personal space, and requests for small favors. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 18(4), 315–330. 10.1111/j.1559‑1816.1988.tb00019.x
     https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1559-1816.1988.tb00019.x [Google Scholar]
  24. Griffit, W., & Veitch, R.
    (1971) Hot and crowded: influence of population density and temperature on interpersonal affective behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 17(1), 92–98. 10.1037/h0030458
     https://doi.org/10.1037/h0030458 [Google Scholar]
  25. Hall, E. T.
    (1966) The hidden dimension (Vol.6091). Garden City, NY: Doubleday.
     [Google Scholar]
  26. Harmon-Jones, E.
    (2003) Anger and the behavioral approach system. Personality and Individual Differences, 35(5), 995–1005. 10.1016/S0191‑8869(02)00313‑6
     https://doi.org/10.1016/S0191-8869(02)00313-6 [Google Scholar]
  27. (2019) On motivational influences, moving beyond valence, and integrating dimensional and discrete views of emotion. Cognition and Emotion, 33(1), 101–108. 10.1080/02699931.2018.1514293
     https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2018.1514293 [Google Scholar]
  28. Hauser, D. J., Carter, M. S., & Meier, B. P.
    (2009) Mellow Monday and furious Friday: The approach-related link between anger and time representation. Cognition and Emotion, 23(6), 1166–1180. 10.1080/02699930802358424
     https://doi.org/10.1080/02699930802358424 [Google Scholar]
  29. Huang, X., Huang, Z., & Wyer Jr, R. S.
    (2018) The influence of social crowding on brand attachment. Journal of Consumer Research, 44(5), 1068–1084. 10.1093/jcr/ucx087
     https://doi.org/10.1093/jcr/ucx087 [Google Scholar]
  30. Hediger, H.
    (1955) Studies of the psychology and behavior of captive animals in zoos and circuses. Oxford, UK: Criterion Books.
     [Google Scholar]
  31. Higgins, E. T.
    (1997) Beyond pleasure and pain. American Psychologist, 52(12), 1280–1300. 10.1037/0003‑066X.52.12.1280
     https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.52.12.1280 [Google Scholar]
  32. Hui, M. K., & Bateson, J. E.
    (1991) Perceived control and the effects of crowding and consumer choice on the service experience. Journal of Consumer Research, 18(2), 174–184. 10.1086/209250
     https://doi.org/10.1086/209250 [Google Scholar]
  33. Hou, Y., Zhang, K., & Li, G.
    (2021) Service robots or human staff: How social crowding shapes tourist preferences. Tourism Management, 831, 104242. 10.1016/j.tourman.2020.104242
     https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2020.104242 [Google Scholar]
  34. James, W.
    (1890) The principles of psychology (vol.21). NY: Henry Holt & Co.
     [Google Scholar]
  35. Kennedy, D. P., Gläscher, J., Tyszka, J. M., & Adolphs, R.
    (2009) Personal space regulation by the human amygdala. Nature Neuroscience, 12(10), 1226–1227. 10.1038/nn.2381
     https://doi.org/10.1038/nn.2381 [Google Scholar]
  36. Kövecses, Z.
    (2020) An extended view of conceptual metaphor theory. Review of Cognitive Linguistics. Published under the auspices of the Spanish Cognitive Linguistics Association, 18(1), 112–130. 10.1075/rcl.00053.kov
     https://doi.org/10.1075/rcl.00053.kov [Google Scholar]
  37. Lakoff, G., & Johnson, M.
    (1980) Metaphors we live by. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
     [Google Scholar]
  38. Lang, P.
    (1995) Studies of motivation and attention. American Psychologist, 50(5), 372–385. 10.1037/0003‑066X.50.5.372
     https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.50.5.372 [Google Scholar]
  39. Lee, A., & Ji, L. J.
    (2014) Moving away from a bad past and toward a good future: Feelings influence the metaphorical understanding of time. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 143(1), 21–26. 10.1037/a0032233
     https://doi.org/10.1037/a0032233 [Google Scholar]
  40. Li, H.
    (2020) Will it really happen? Disambiguating of the hypothetical and real “Next Wednesday’s meeting” question in Mandarin speakers. Lingua, 2371, 102806. 10.1016/j.lingua.2020.102806
     https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lingua.2020.102806 [Google Scholar]
  41. (2021) Time heals all wounds: analysis of changes in temporal focus and implicit space–time mappings among survivors of the 2019 China earthquake over time. Language and Cognition, 13(4), 595–612. 10.1017/langcog.2021.14
     https://doi.org/10.1017/langcog.2021.14 [Google Scholar]
  42. Li, H., & Cao, Y.
    (2021) Move with the flow: Metaphorical perspectives on time in Chinese Taoists and atheists. The International Journal for the Psychology of Religion, 31(4), 225–234. 10.1080/10508619.2020.1825174
     https://doi.org/10.1080/10508619.2020.1825174 [Google Scholar]
  43. Lu, J. G., Lee, J. J., Gino, F., & Galinsky, A. D.
    (2018) Polluted morality: Air pollution predicts criminal activity and unethical behavior. Psychological Science, 29(3), 340–355. 10.1177/0956797617735807
     https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797617735807 [Google Scholar]
  44. Maeng, A., Tanner, R. J., & Soman, D.
    (2013) Conservative when crowded: Social crowding and consumer choice. Journal of Marketing Research, 50(6), 739–752. 10.1509/jmr.12.0118
     https://doi.org/10.1509/jmr.12.0118 [Google Scholar]
  45. Margolies, S. O., & Crawford, L. E.
    (2008) Event valence and spatial metaphors of time. Cognition and Emotion, 22(7), 1401–1414. 10.1080/02699930701810335
     https://doi.org/10.1080/02699930701810335 [Google Scholar]
  46. Marteau, T. M., & Bekker, H.
    (1992) The development of a six-item short-form of the state scale of the Spielberger State – Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI). British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 31(3), 301–306. 10.1111/j.2044‑8260.1992.tb00997.x
     https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8260.1992.tb00997.x [Google Scholar]
  47. Matlock, T., Ramscar, M., & Boroditsky, L.
    (2005) On the experiential link between spatial and temporal language. Cognitive Science, 29(4), 655–664. 10.1207/s15516709cog0000_17
     https://doi.org/10.1207/s15516709cog0000_17 [Google Scholar]
  48. Maxwell, S. E., Lau, M. Y., & Howard, G. S.
    (2015) Is psychology suffering from a replication crisis? What does “failure to replicate” really mean?. American Psychologist, 70(6), 487–498. 10.1037/a0039400
     https://doi.org/10.1037/a0039400 [Google Scholar]
  49. McGlone, M. S., & Harding, J. L.
    (1998) Back (or forward?) to the future: The role of perspective in temporal language comprehension. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 24(5), 1211–1223.
     [Google Scholar]
  50. Medimorec, S.
    (2022) The effects of day of the week on temporal ambiguity resolution. Psychological Reports, 125(2), 882–889. 10.1177/0033294120979686
     https://doi.org/10.1177/0033294120979686 [Google Scholar]
  51. Neuberg, S. L., Kenrick, D. T., & Schaller, M.
    (2011) Human threat management systems: Self-protection and disease avoidance. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 35(4), 1042–1051. 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2010.08.011
     https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2010.08.011 [Google Scholar]
  52. Núñez, R., & Cooperrider, K.
    (2013) The tangle of space and time in human cognition. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 17(5), 220–229. 10.1016/j.tics.2013.03.008
     https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2013.03.008 [Google Scholar]
  53. Núñez, R. E., Motz, B. A., & Teuscher, U.
    (2006) Time after time: The psychological reality of the ego-and time-reference-point distinction in metaphorical construals of time. Metaphor and Symbol, 21(3), 133–146. 10.1207/s15327868ms2103_1
     https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327868ms2103_1 [Google Scholar]
  54. Novelli, D., Drury, J., Reicher, S., & Stott, C.
    (2013) Crowdedness mediates the effect of social identification on positive emotion in a crowd: A survey of two crowd events. PloS One, 8(11), e78983. 10.1371/journal.pone.0078983
     https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0078983 [Google Scholar]
  55. Oldham, G. R., & Fried, Y.
    (1987) Employee reactions to workspace characteristics. Journal of Applied Psychology, 72(1), 75–80. 10.1037/0021‑9010.72.1.75
     https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.72.1.75 [Google Scholar]
  56. Preacher, K. J., & Hayes, A. F.
    (2004) SPSS and SAS procedures for estimating indirect effects in simple mediation models. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, & Computers, 36(4), 717–731. 10.3758/BF03206553
     https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03206553 [Google Scholar]
  57. Pashler, H., & Wagenmakers, E. J.
    (2012) Editors’ introduction to the special section on replicability in psychological science: A crisis of confidence?. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 7(6), 528–530. 10.1177/1745691612465253
     https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691612465253 [Google Scholar]
  58. Richmond, J., Clare Wilson, J., & Zinken, J.
    (2012) A feeling for the future: How does agency in time metaphors relate to feelings?. European Journal of Social Psychology, 42(7), 813–823. 10.1002/ejsp.1906
     https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.1906 [Google Scholar]
  59. Rodríguez, L.
    (2022) Dickens in Chol. Language and Cognition, 14(2), 303–331. 10.1017/langcog.2022.1
     https://doi.org/10.1017/langcog.2022.1 [Google Scholar]
  60. Schaeffer, G. H., & Patterson, M. L.
    (1980) Intimacy, arousal, and small group crowding. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 38(2), 283–290. 10.1037/0022‑3514.38.2.283
     https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.38.2.283 [Google Scholar]
  61. Simmons, J. P., Nelson, L. D., & Simonsohn, U.
    (2011) False-positive psychology: Undisclosed flexibility in data collection and analysis allows presenting anything as significant. Psychological Science, 22(11), 1359–1366. 10.1177/0956797611417632
     https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797611417632 [Google Scholar]
  62. Shen, S., & Li, H.
    (2021) It’s owl time!: the relationship between chronotype and resolution of temporal ambiguity. Chronobiology International, 38(8), 1103–1108. 10.1080/07420528.2021.1912076
     https://doi.org/10.1080/07420528.2021.1912076 [Google Scholar]
  63. Sinha, C., Sinha, V. D. S., Zinken, J., & Sampaio, W.
    (2011) When time is not space: The social and linguistic construction of time intervals and temporal event relations in an Amazonian culture. Language and Cognition, 3(1), 137–169. 10.1515/langcog.2011.006
     https://doi.org/10.1515/langcog.2011.006 [Google Scholar]
  64. Smith, S., & Haythorn, W. W.
    (1972) Effects of compatibility, crowding, group size, and leadership seniority on stress, anxiety, hostility, and annoyance in isolated groups. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 22(1), 67–79. 10.1037/h0032392
     https://doi.org/10.1037/h0032392 [Google Scholar]
  65. Stickles, E., & Lewis, T. N.
    (2018) Wednesday’s meeting really is on Friday: A meta-analysis and evaluation of ambiguous spatiotemporal language. Cognitive Science, 42(3), 1015–1025. 10.1111/cogs.12559
     https://doi.org/10.1111/cogs.12559 [Google Scholar]
  66. Stocker, K., & Hartmann, M.
    (2019) “Next Wednesday’s meeting has been moved forward two days”: The time-perspective question is ambiguous in Swiss German, but not in standard German. Swiss Journal of Psychology, 78(1–2), 61–67. 10.1024/1421‑0185/a000220
     https://doi.org/10.1024/1421-0185/a000220 [Google Scholar]
  67. Vassilopoulos, S. P.
    (2005) Social anxiety and the vigilance-avoidance pattern of attentional processing. Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy, 33(1), 13–24. 10.1017/S1352465804001730
     https://doi.org/10.1017/S1352465804001730 [Google Scholar]
  68. Williams, L. E., & Bargh, J. A.
    (2008) Experiencing physical warmth promotes interpersonal warmth. Science, 322(5901), 606–607. 10.1126/science.1162548
     https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1162548 [Google Scholar]
  69. Winter, B., & Duffy, S. E.
    (2020) Can co-speech gestures alone carry the mental time line?. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 46(9), 1768–1781.
     [Google Scholar]
  70. Worchel, S., & Teddie, C.
    (1976) The experience of crowding: A two-factor theory. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 34(1), 30–40. 10.1037/0022‑3514.34.1.30
     https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.34.1.30 [Google Scholar]
  71. Xu, J., Shen, H., & Wyer Jr, R. S.
    (2012) Does the distance between us matter? Influences of physical proximity to others on consumer choice. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 22(3), 418–423. 10.1016/j.jcps.2011.06.006
     https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcps.2011.06.006 [Google Scholar]
  72. Zheng, W., Liu, Y., Liu, C. H., Chen, Y. H., Cui, Q., & Fu, X.
    (2019) The influence of event valence and emotional states on the metaphorical comprehension of time. Frontiers in Psychology, 101, 410. 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00410
     https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00410 [Google Scholar]
/content/journals/10.1075/rcl.00144.li
Loading
  • Article Type: Research Article
Keyword(s): anxiety; crowding; ego moving; time metaphor; time moving

Most Cited

This is a required field
Please enter a valid email address
Approval was successful
Invalid data
An Error Occurred
Approval was partially successful, following selected items could not be processed due to error