1887
  1. Home
  2. e-Journals
  3. Written Language & Literacy
  4. Volume 28, Issue 1
  5. Article
Volume 28, Issue 1
  • ISSN 1387-6732
  • E-ISSN: 1570-6001
USD
Buy:$35.00 + Taxes

Abstract

Bird (1999a, 1999b) was one of the first linguists to draw attention to the similarities between the newly emerging Roman script orthographies of African languages, where tone is often under-represented, and Semitic orthographies, where most vowels are typically under-represented. This paper demonstrates that it is not only the orthographies but the linguistic functions of tone in African languages and vowels in both Modern Hebrew and Modern Standard Arabic that are similar; not just at a general level but also in their details. In seeking to illustrate the similarities between a wide range of African languages and the two Semitic languages, the paper catalogues pairs of heterophonic homographs as being either lexical (Section 3.1) or grammatical (Section 3.2) in nature, as well as cases of interaction (Section 3.3). The paper also acknowledges a number of lexical tone distinctions among African languages that have no parallels in the vowel structures of Hebrew and Arabic (Section 4). Given the striking similarities in how the linguistic functions of African tone and Semitic vowels are represented (or not) in the different writing systems, any researchers concerned with developing orthographies for previously unwritten tone languages, such as those in Africa, would do well to heed the extensive literature on Hebrew and Arabic literacy acquisition and to identify what lessons can be extracted when developing tone orthographies.

© 2025 John Benjamins Publishing Company
Loading

Article metrics loading...

/content/journals/10.1075/wll.00092.rob
2026-07-02
2026-07-17

  • From This Site

    /content/journals/10.1075/wll.00092.rob
    dcterms_title,dcterms_subject,pub_keyword
    -contentType:Journal -contentType:Contributor -contentType:Concept -contentType:Institution
    10
    5
Loading full text...

Full text loading...

References

  1. Abu-Rabia, Salim
    (1996) The role of vowels and context in reading of highly skilled native Arabic speakers. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research251.629–641. 10.1007/BF01712413
     https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01712413 [Google Scholar]
  2. (2001) The role of vowels in reading Semitic scripts: Data from Arabic and Hebrew. Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal141.39–59. 10.1023/A:1008147606320
     https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1008147606320 [Google Scholar]
  3. Adinyah, John Bequen
    (2012) Grammatical and lexical tone variations in Nawuri. Paper presented atthe Institute of African Studies and GILLBT Conference, Tamale, Ghana.
     [Google Scholar]
  4. Agabi, Nathan
    (2019) The functional load of tone in Wapan Jukun language. Bukuru: Theological College of Northern Nigeria. Unpublished BA thesis.
     [Google Scholar]
  5. Ahland, Michael
    (2016) The development of finite verbs from nominalized structures in Northern Mao. In (eds) Doris L. Payne, Sara Pacchiarotti & Mokaya Bosire, Diversity in African languages, 467–492. Berlin: Language Science Press.
     [Google Scholar]
  6. Ameka, Felix K.
    (1991) Ewe: Its grammatical constructions and illocutionary devices. Canberra: Australian National University. Unpublished PhD dissertation.
     [Google Scholar]
  7. Anonymous
    Anonymous (1994) Kpéé ráŋã dĩ grö’dõ ádá ká lëmë gbäyä (Learning to reading in Kresh: Book 1). Juba: SIL South Sudan.
     [Google Scholar]
  8. Bar-On, Amalia
    (2015) Reading in the shadow of homography: The problem is the solution [Translation of Hebrew title]. Oriyanut VeSafa51.99–120.
     [Google Scholar]
  9. Bar-On, Amalia, Elitzur Dattner & Dorit Ravid
    (2017) Context effects on heterophonic-homography resolution in learning to reading Hebrew. Reading & Writing301.463–487. 10.1007/s11145‑016‑9685‑1
     https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-016-9685-1 [Google Scholar]
  10. Bar-on, Amalia & Victor Kuperman
    (2019) Spelling errors respect morphology: A corpus study of Hebrew orthography. Reading & Writing321.1107–1128. 10.1007/s11145‑018‑9902‑1
     https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-018-9902-1 [Google Scholar]
  11. Bar-On, Amalia, Tal Oron & Orna Peleg
    (2021) Semantic and syntactic constraints in resolving homography: A developmental study in Hebrew. Reading & Writing341.2103–2126. 10.1007/s11145‑021‑10129‑6
     https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-021-10129-6 [Google Scholar]
  12. Bauer, Andreas & Pieternel Wigboldus
    (2010) Zaysite phonology. SIL-Ethiopia. Addis Ababa.
  13. Beerle-Moor, Marianne & Vitaly Voinov
    (eds) (2015) Language vitality through Bible translation (Berkeley Insights in Linguistics and Semiotics 95). New York: Peter Lang. 10.3726/978‑1‑4539‑1475‑5
     https://doi.org/10.3726/978-1-4539-1475-5 [Google Scholar]
  14. Berent, Iris & Joseph Shimron
    (1997) The representation of Hebrew words: Evidence from the obligatory contour principle. Cognition641.39–72. 10.1016/S0010‑0277(97)00016‑4
     https://doi.org/10.1016/S0010-0277(97)00016-4 [Google Scholar]
  15. Berman, Ruth A.
    (2012) Revisiting roots in Hebrew: A multi-faceted view. In (eds) Malka Muchnik & Tsani Sadan, Studies on modern Hebrew and Jewish languages in honor of Ora (Rodriguez) Schwarzwald [English translation of Hebrew title], 132–158. Jerusalem: Carmel.
     [Google Scholar]
  16. Bird, Steven
    (1999a) Strategies for representing tone in African writing systems. Written Language & Literacy2:1.1–44. 10.1075/wll.2.1.02bir
     https://doi.org/10.1075/wll.2.1.02bir [Google Scholar]
  17. (1999b) When marking tone reduces fluency: An orthography experiment in Cameroon. Language and Speech421.83–115. 10.1177/00238309990420010401
     https://doi.org/10.1177/00238309990420010401 [Google Scholar]
  18. Brinneman, Carol, Gaston Nfa & David Roberts
    (2025) Grammaire du lama. Dallas TX: SIL Global.
     [Google Scholar]
  19. Cahill, Michael
    (2021) Marking grammatical tone in orthographies: Issues and challenges. In (eds) Akinbiyi Akinlabi, Lee Bickmore, Michael Cahill, Michael Diercks, Laura J. Downing, James Essegbey, Katie Franich, Laura McPherson & Sharon Rose, Celebrating 50 years of ACAL: Selected papers from the 50th Annual Conference on African Linguistics, 23–34. Berlin: Language Science Press.
     [Google Scholar]
  20. Clements, George N. & John A. Goldsmith
    (1984) Autosegmental studies in Bantu tone. Dordecht, Netherlands and Cinnaminson NJ: Foris. 10.1515/9783110864465
     https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110864465 [Google Scholar]
  21. Connell, Bruce A., Richard J. Hayward & John Abraha Ashkaba
    (2000) Observations on Kunama tone. Studies in African Linguistics29:1.1–42. 10.32473/sal.v29i1.107369
     https://doi.org/10.32473/sal.v29i1.107369 [Google Scholar]
  22. Dosman, Obede
    (2022) Búkũ Lị̃fị́ îcî ‘bá pã kâ: Í’dígówá zị̃zị̃ íyî drị̃ sĩ (Avokaya Primer part 2: Teacher’s guide, 3rd edition). Juba: SIL South Sudan and Avokaya Language Committee.
     [Google Scholar]
  23. Eaton, Helen
    (2006) Sandawe. Journal of the International Phonetic Association36:2.235–242. 10.1017/S0025100306002647
     https://doi.org/10.1017/S0025100306002647 [Google Scholar]
  24. (2018) Coordination and Subordination in Sandawe Clauses. SIL Electronic Working Papers 2018-001. Dallas: SIL International.
     [Google Scholar]
  25. Essien, Udo E.
    (1977) To end ambiguity in a tone language. In (eds) Paul F. A. Kotey & Haig Der-Houssikian, Languages and linguistics problems in Africa. Proceedings of the 7th conference on African linguistics, 155–167. Columbia, South Carolina: Hornbeam Press.
     [Google Scholar]
  26. Frost, Ram
    (1994) Prelexical and postlexical strategies in reading: Evidence from a deep and a shallow orthography. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory and Cognition201.116–129. 10.1037/0278‑7393.20.1.116
     https://doi.org/10.1037/0278-7393.20.1.116 [Google Scholar]
  27. Frost, Ram & S. Bentin
    (1992) Reading consonants and guessing vowels: Visual word recognition in Hebrew orthography. In (eds) Ram Frost & Leonard Katz, Orthography, phonology, morphology and meaning, 27–44. Amsterdam: North-Holland. 10.1016/S0166‑4115(08)62787‑9
     https://doi.org/10.1016/S0166-4115(08)62787-9 [Google Scholar]
  28. Gblem-Poidi, Honorine
    (1995) Description systématique de l’igo, langue du sud-oeust du Togo. Grenoble: Université Stendhal, Grenoble III. Thèse de doctorat.
     [Google Scholar]
  29. Goldsmith, John
    (1976) Autosegmental and metrical phonology: MIT. PhD dissertation. Published by Blackwell, Oxford 1990.
     [Google Scholar]
  30. Gonzales, Ashleigh
    (2009) Intrinsic F0 in Shona vowels: A descriptive study. In (eds) Akinloye Ojo & Lioba Moshi, Selected proceedings of the 39th Annual Conference on African Linguistics, 145–155. Somerville, MA: Cascadilla Proceedings Project.
     [Google Scholar]
  31. Grainger, Jonathan, Maryline Nguyen van Kang & Juan Segui
    (2001) Cross-modal repetition priming of heterographic homophones. Memory & Cognition29:1.53–61. 10.3758/BF03195740
     https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03195740 [Google Scholar]
  32. Güldemann, Tom
    (2014) ‘Khoisan’ linguistic classification today. In (eds) Tom Güldemann & Anne-Maria Fehn, Beyond ‘Khoisan.’ Historical relations in the Kalahari Basin [Current issues in linguistic theory 330], 1–41. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. 10.1075/cilt.330.01gul
     https://doi.org/10.1075/cilt.330.01gul [Google Scholar]
  33. Harley, Matthew
    . (ms). Notes on the E̱da grammar. SIL-Nigeria.
  34. Harry, Otelemate & Larry Hyman
    (2014) Phrasal construction tonology: the case of Kalabari. Studies in Language38:4.649–689. 10.1075/sl.38.4.01hym
     https://doi.org/10.1075/sl.38.4.01hym [Google Scholar]
  35. Hayward, Richard J.
    (2000) Afroasiatic. In (eds) Bernd Heine & Derek Nurse, African languages: An introduction, 74–98. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
     [Google Scholar]
  36. Heath, Jeffrey
    (2008) A grammar of Jamsay. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. 10.1515/9783110207224
     https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110207224 [Google Scholar]
  37. (2014) Grammar of Humburi Senni (Songhay of Hombori, Mali). Language Description Heritage Library. Leipzig: Max-Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology.
     [Google Scholar]
  38. (2017) A grammar of Jalkunan (Mande, Burkina Faso): Language Description Heritage Library (online). Ann Arbor MI: University of Michigan.
     [Google Scholar]
  39. Heine, Bernd & Henry Honken
    (2010) The Kx’a family: A new Khoisan genealogy. Journal of Asian and African Studies791.5–36.
     [Google Scholar]
  40. Hellenthal, Anne-Christie
    (2010) A grammar of Sheko. Utrecht: LOT.
     [Google Scholar]
  41. Hoberman, Robert D.
    (1988) Local and long-distance spreading in Semitic morphology. Natural Language & Linguistic Theory6:4.541–549. 10.1007/BF00134492
     https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00134492 [Google Scholar]
  42. Hunziker, Daniel A., Elisabeth Hunziker & Helen Eaton
    . (ms). A description of the phonology of the Sandawe language. SIL International.
     [Google Scholar]
  43. Hyman, Larry
    (2001) Privative tone in Bantu. In (ed.) Shigeki Kaji, Cross-linguistic studies of tonal phenomena, 237–257. Tokyo: Institute for the Study of Languages and Cultures.
     [Google Scholar]
  44. (2007) Tone: Is it different?UC Berkeley Phonology Lab Annual Report3:3.483–528. Later published asHyman, L. (2011) Tone: Is it different?InJ. Goldsmith, J. Riggle, & A. Yu (Eds.), The Handbook of Phonological Theory, 2nd edition (pp.197–239). Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell. 10.5070/P71SR5F98X
     https://doi.org/10.5070/P71SR5F98X [Google Scholar]
  45. (2009) How (not) to do phonological typology: The case of pitch-accent. Language Sciences311.213–238. 10.1016/j.langsci.2008.12.007
     https://doi.org/10.1016/j.langsci.2008.12.007 [Google Scholar]
  46. (2013) Issues in the phonology-morphology interface in African languages. In (eds) Olanike Ola Orie & Karen W. Sanders, Selected Proceedings of the 43rd Annual Conference on African Linguistics, 16–25. Somerville, MA: Cascadilla Proceedings Project.
     [Google Scholar]
  47. Hyman, Larry & Charles Kisseberth
    (eds) (1998) Theoretical aspects of Bantu tone. Stanford: Center for the Study of Language and Information.
     [Google Scholar]
  48. Hyman, Larry & William R. Leben
    (2000) Suprasegmental processes. In (ed.) John M. Anderson, Morphologie: Ein Internationales Handbuch zur Flexion und Wortbildung, 11, 587–594. The Hague: Mouton.
     [Google Scholar]
  49. (2017) Word prosody II: Tone systems. UC Berkeley Phonology Lab Annual Report13:1.178–209. Later published asHyman, L., & Leben, W. R. (2021) Word Prosody II: Tone systems. InC. Gussenhoven & A. Chen (Eds.), Oxford handbook of language prosodyp.45–65. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 10.5070/P7131040752
     https://doi.org/10.5070/P7131040752 [Google Scholar]
  50. ILA
    ILA (1979) Une orthographe pratique des langues ivoiriennes. Abidjan: Institut de Linguistique Appliquée, Université d’Abidjan.
     [Google Scholar]
  51. Jenewari, Charles E. W.
    (1977) Studies in Kalabari syntax. Ibadan: University of Ibadan. Doctoral dissertation.
     [Google Scholar]
  52. (1985) Kalaḅarị orthography. In (ed.) A. Banjo, Orthographies of Nigerian languages: Manual III, 83–107. Lagos: National Language Center, Federal Ministry of Education (Nigeria).
     [Google Scholar]
  53. Jungraithmayr, Herrmann & Philibus Diyakal
    (2013) Mushere, a Chadic language of five level tones. Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenländischen Gesellschaft163:2.297–307.
     [Google Scholar]
  54. Katz, Leonard & Ram Frost
    (1992) The reading process is different for different orthographies: The orthographic depth hypothesis. In (eds) Leonard Katz & Ram Frost, Orthography, Phonology, Morphology and Meaning, 67–84. Amsterdam: Elsevier Science Publishers. Also appears in Haskins Laboratories Status Report on Speech Research, 111–112, pages147–160. 10.1016/S0166‑4115(08)62789‑2
     https://doi.org/10.1016/S0166-4115(08)62789-2 [Google Scholar]
  55. Koffi, Ettien
    (1994) The representation of tones in the orthography. Notes on Literacy20:3.51–59.
     [Google Scholar]
  56. Konoshenko, Maria
    (2017) Tone in grammar: What we already know and what we still don’t. Voprosy Jazykoznanija41.101–114. 10.31857/S0373658X0001023‑4
     https://doi.org/10.31857/S0373658X0001023-4 [Google Scholar]
  57. Kordow, H. Moubashir
    (2007) Tem Ŋmáádɩ Kpɛlɛḿ tákárɩɖá sɩ́ɩ́lɛ́ ńgɩ: Apprendre l’écriture en Tem — lettres Romains et Arabes. Sokodé: Publisher unspecified.
     [Google Scholar]
  58. Kutsch Lojenga, Constance
    (1986) Some experiences in writing and teaching tone in Africa. Notes on LiteracySpecial issue11.59–65.
     [Google Scholar]
  59. (1993) The writing and reading of tone in Bantu languages. Notes on Literacy191.1–19.
     [Google Scholar]
  60. (2014) Orthography and tone: A tone system typology with implications for orthography development. In (eds) Michael Cahill & Keren Rice, Developing orthographies for unwritten languages, 49–72. Dallas: SIL International.
     [Google Scholar]
  61. (2015) La fonction du ton (Handout sur le ton grammatical utilisé au séminaire sur l’orthographe du ton des langues centrafricaines, du 5 au 23 janvier 2015 à Yaoundé au Cameroun). SIL-International.
     [Google Scholar]
  62. Laks, L.
    (2018) Verb innovation in Hebrew and Palestinian Arabic: The interaction of morpho-phonological and thematic-semantic criteria. Brill’s Annual Afroasiatic Languages and Linguistics10:2.238–284. 10.1163/18776930‑01002003
     https://doi.org/10.1163/18776930-01002003 [Google Scholar]
  63. Laks, L. & E. Saiegh-Haddad
    (2022) Variety and modality distinctions in language use in Arabic diglossia. In (eds) E. Saiegh-Haddad, L. Laks & C. McBride, Handbook of literacy in diglossia and dialectal contexts: Psycholinguistic, neurolinguistic and educational perspectives, 247–271. Cham: Springer Nature. 10.1007/978‑3‑030‑80072‑7_12
     https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-80072-7_12 [Google Scholar]
  64. Laks, Lior, Ibrahim Hamad & Elinor Saiegh-Haddad
    (2019) Verbal patterns in Palestinian Arabic. The Mental Lexicon14:2.209–236. 10.1075/ml.00005.lak
     https://doi.org/10.1075/ml.00005.lak [Google Scholar]
  65. Levie, R., O. Ashkenazi, S. Eitan Stanzas, R. Zwilling, E. Raz, L. Hershkovitz & D. Ravid
    (2020) The route to the derivational verb family in Hebrew: A psycholinguistic study of acquisition and development. Morphology301.1–60. 10.1007/s11525‑020‑09348‑4
     https://doi.org/10.1007/s11525-020-09348-4 [Google Scholar]
  66. Malgwi, Yunana Inuwa
    (2018) A critical analysis of the Bura sound system by a mother tongue speaker. Bukuru: Theological College of Northern Nigeria. Unpublished BA thesis.
     [Google Scholar]
  67. Markus, Shiri
    (2021) Morpho-syntactic features of Hebrew heterophonic-homographic words [in Hebrew]. Tel-Aviv: University of Tel-Aviv. Unpublished Masters thesis.
     [Google Scholar]
  68. McCarthy, John J.
    (1979) Formal problems in Semitic phonology and morphology. Cambridge, MA: MIT. PhD dissertation. Distributed by Indiana University Linguistics Club. Published byGarland Press, New York NY 1985.
     [Google Scholar]
  69. (1981) A prosodic theory of nonconcatenative morphology. Linguistic Enquiry121.373–418.
     [Google Scholar]
  70. Meier, Ingeborg
    (1983) Making tone markings acceptable and easy: a lesson for literacy from linguistics. Notes on Linguistics: 271.4–8.
     [Google Scholar]
  71. Mfonyam, Joseph Ngwa
    (1996) Reading and writing tone in African languages. In (ed.) Emmanuel Nges Chia, Guide to readability in African languages Linguistics edition, 111. München: Lincom Europa.
     [Google Scholar]
  72. Miller-Naudé, Cynthia, Jacobus Naudé, Tanya Beelders & Luna Bergh
    (2017) Visual grammar: An eye-tracking perspective on cognitive complexity in Biblical Hebrew pronunciation. In (eds) Frederick Greenspahn & Gary Rendsburg, Le-ma’an Ziony: Essays in honor of Ziony Zevit, 316–344. Eugene, OR: Cascade.
     [Google Scholar]
  73. Mumin, Meikal
    (2014) The Arabic script in Africa : Understudied literacy. In (eds) Meikal Mumin & Kees Versteegh, The Arabic script in Africa: Studies in the use of a writing system, 41–78. Leiden: Brill. 10.1163/9789004256804_004
     https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004256804_004 [Google Scholar]
  74. Navon, David & Joseph Shimron
    (1984) Reading Hebrew: How necessary is the phonemic representation of vowels?In (ed.) Leslie Henderson, Orthographies and reading. Hillsdale, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
     [Google Scholar]
  75. Newman, Paul
    (2000) The Hausa language: An encyclopedic reference grammar. New Haven & London: Yale University Press.
     [Google Scholar]
  76. (2022) A history of the Hausa language: Reconstruction and pathways to the present. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 10.1017/9781009128070
     https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009128070 [Google Scholar]
  77. Ngukas, Gabriel Micah
    (2022a) Deixis of Mushere language: A property of tone and vowel length?Paper presented atthe Jos Linguistics Circle, Jos.
     [Google Scholar]
  78. (2022b) An evaluation of tone in Mushere language. Bukuru: Theological College of Northern Nigeria. Unpublished MA thesis.
     [Google Scholar]
  79. Nkuruna, John, Jeremiah Liaram & Peter Sentero
    (2013) Nánú opény! [All by myself!]. Nairobi: Women Educational Researchers of Kenya.
     [Google Scholar]
  80. Norton, Russell
    (2012) Non-concatenative morphology in Dinka and Arabic: Augmentation and replacement. In (eds) Matthias Brenzinger & Anne-Maria Fehn, Proceedings of the 6th World Congress of African Linguistics, Cologne 17–21 August 2009, 169–179. Cologne: Rüdiger Köppe.
     [Google Scholar]
  81. (2020) Ama verbs in comparative perspective. Dotawo: A Journal of Nubian Studies71: Comparative Northern East Sudanic Linguistics. 93–125.
     [Google Scholar]
  82. . (ms). Cam tone findings summary (October 2007 discourse workshop) ed. SIL-Sudan. Juba.
     [Google Scholar]
  83. Odden, David
    (1981) Problems in tone assignment in Shona. Urbana-Champaign IL: University of Illinois. Doctoral dissertation.
     [Google Scholar]
  84. (1995) Tone in African languages. In (ed.) John Goldsmith, The handbook of phonological theory, 444–475. Oxford: Blackwell.
     [Google Scholar]
  85. (2019) Tone. In (eds) Mark Van de Velde & Koen Bostoen, The Bantu Languages, 2nd edition. London: Routledge.
     [Google Scholar]
  86. (2020) Tone. In (eds) Rainer Vossen & Gerrit Dimmendaal, The Oxford handbook of African languages, 30–47. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199609895.013.50
     https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199609895.013.50 [Google Scholar]
  87. Pasch, Helma
    (2008) Competing scripts: the introduction of the Roman alphabet in Africa. International Journal of the Sociology of Language: special issue on script and orthography1911.65–109. 10.1515/IJSL.2008.025
     https://doi.org/10.1515/IJSL.2008.025 [Google Scholar]
  88. Perfetti, Charles A. & Lesley Hart
    (2001) The lexical basis of comprehension skill. In (ed.) David S. Gorfein, On the consequences of meaning selection: Perspectives on resolving lexical ambiguity. Washington DC: American Psychological Association. 10.1037/10459‑004
     https://doi.org/10.1037/10459-004 [Google Scholar]
  89. Porkhomovsky, Victor
    (2021) Afro-Asiatic overview. In (eds) Rainer Vossen & Gerrit Dimmendaal, Oxford handbook of African languages, 269—274. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
     [Google Scholar]
  90. Rapold, Christian J.
    (2006) Towards a grammar of Benchnon. Leiden: Leiden University. PhD thesis.
     [Google Scholar]
  91. Rappaport, Malka
    (1984) Issues in the phonology of Tiberian Hebrew. Cambridge, MA: MIT. PhD dissertation.
     [Google Scholar]
  92. Ravid, Dorit
    (2005) Hebrew orthography and literacy. In (eds) R. M. Joshi & P. G. Aaron, Handbook of orthography and literacy, 339–363. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
     [Google Scholar]
  93. (2012) Spelling morphology: The psycholinguistics of Hebrew spelling. New York: Springer. 10.1007/978‑1‑4419‑0588‑8
     https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-0588-8 [Google Scholar]
  94. (2020) Derivation. In (ed.) R. A. Berman, Usage-based studies in modern Hebrew: Background, morpho-lexicon and syntax, 203–263. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins. 10.1075/slcs.210.09rav
     https://doi.org/10.1075/slcs.210.09rav [Google Scholar]
  95. Ravid, Dorit & Sarit Haimowitz
    (2006) The vowel path: Learning about vowel representation in written Hebrew. Written Language & Literacy9:1.67–93. 10.1075/wll.9.1.06rav
     https://doi.org/10.1075/wll.9.1.06rav [Google Scholar]
  96. Ravid, Dorit & Rachel Schiff
    (2004) Learning to represent vowels in written Hebrew: Different factors across development. First Language24:2.185–208. 10.1177/0142723704044127
     https://doi.org/10.1177/0142723704044127 [Google Scholar]
  97. Ravid, Dorit & Lizzy Vered
    (2017) Hebrew verbal passives in later language development: The interface of register and verb morphology. Journal of Child Language44:6.1309–1336. 10.1017/S0305000916000544
     https://doi.org/10.1017/S0305000916000544 [Google Scholar]
  98. Revell, Ernest John
    (1975) The diacritical dots and the development of the Arabic alphabet. Journal of Semitic Studies20:2.178–190. 10.1093/jss/XX.2.178
     https://doi.org/10.1093/jss/XX.2.178 [Google Scholar]
  99. Roberts, David
    (2015a) Laying a foundation for tone orthography research and decision-making: the Kabiye homograph corpus. Scripta71.151–189.
     [Google Scholar]
  100. (2015b) Vers une orthographe appropriée pour le kabba: rapport de fin de séminaire sur l’orthographe du ton des langues centrafricaines, à Yaoundé au Cameroun, du 5 au 23 janvier 2015. Yaoundé: SIL.
     [Google Scholar]
  101. (2023) Roman script orthography development in Africa: Historical and contemporary perspectives. In (eds) R. Malatesha Joshi, Catherine A. McBride, Bestern Kaani & Gad Elbeheri, Handbook of literacy in Africa, 59–78. New York: Springer Nature. 10.1007/978‑3‑031‑26250‑0_4
     https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-26250-0_4 [Google Scholar]
  102. (in press). Multilinear featurality in Roman script African orthographies. In ed. Heather Winskel, Handbook of Non-linear writing systems. Cham: Springer.
     [Google Scholar]
  103. Roberts, David, Ginger Boyd, Johannes Merz & Valentin Vydrin
    (2020) Quantifying written ambiguities in tone languages: A comparative study of Elip, Mbelime and Eastern Dan. Language Documentation and Conservation141.108–138.
     [Google Scholar]
  104. Saiegh-Haddad, Elinor
    (2018) MAWRID: A model of Arabic word reading in development. Journal of Reading Disabilities51:5.454–462. 10.1177/0022219417720460
     https://doi.org/10.1177/0022219417720460 [Google Scholar]
  105. Saiegh-Haddad, Elinor & Roni Henkin-Roitfarb
    (2014) The structure of Arabic language and orthography. In (eds) Elinor Saiegh-Haddad & R. Malatesha Joshi, Handbook of Arabic literacy, 3–28. Dordecht: Springer. 10.1007/978‑94‑017‑8545‑7_1
     https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-8545-7_1 [Google Scholar]
  106. Saiegh-Haddad, Elinor & Rachel Schiff
    (2016) The impact of diglossia on voweled and unvoweled word reading in Arabic: A developmental study from childhood to adolescence. Scientific Studies of Reading20:4.311–324. 10.1080/10888438.2016.1180526
     https://doi.org/10.1080/10888438.2016.1180526 [Google Scholar]
  107. Sandjougouma, Yoro Issacar & David Roberts
    (2021) Vers une orthographe appropriée du ton pour le waama. Kara: SIL Togo-Bénin.
     [Google Scholar]
  108. Schadeberg, Thilo C.
    (1986) Tone cases in Umbundu. Africana Linguistica101.423–447. 10.3406/aflin.1986.935
     https://doi.org/10.3406/aflin.1986.935 [Google Scholar]
  109. Shigeaki, Amano, Kondo Tadahisa & Kakehi Kazuhik
    (1995) Modality dependency of familiarity ratings of Japanese words. Perception & Psychophysics57:5.598–603. 10.3758/BF03213265
     https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03213265 [Google Scholar]
  110. Shimron, Joseph & T. Sivan
    (1994) Reading proficiency and orthography: Evidence from Hebrew and English. Language Learning441.5–27. 10.1111/j.1467‑1770.1994.tb01447.x
     https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-1770.1994.tb01447.x [Google Scholar]
  111. Shrem, Karni
    (2021) Frequency characteristics of heterophonic-homographic Hebrew words. Tel-Aviv: University of Tel-Aviv. Unpublished masters thesis.
     [Google Scholar]
  112. SIL
    SIL (2022). À zɛ nɩ́wɔlɩ: Lisons le neyo. Guide de transition neyo pour adultes. Sassandra and Abidjan: À zɛ nɩ́wɔlɩ and SIL Côte d’Ivoire.
     [Google Scholar]
  113. Snider, Keith
    (2018) Tone analysis for field linguists. Dallas TX: SIL International.
     [Google Scholar]
  114. (2021) Floating tone noun class prefixes in Mada (Nigeria). Linguistique et Langues Africaines71.11–41. 10.4000/lla.731
     https://doi.org/10.4000/lla.731 [Google Scholar]
  115. Stegen, Oliver
    (2005) Tone in Eastern Bantu orthographies. Paper presented atthe SIL Bantu orthography meeting, Dallas.
     [Google Scholar]
  116. Stirtz, Timothy M.
    (2014) ’Bëlï phonology, tone and orthography. Dallas, TX: SIL International.
     [Google Scholar]
  117. Thomas, Elaine
    (1972) Marking Tone in Engenni. Notes on Literacy141.9–12.
     [Google Scholar]
  118. Veiga, Arlindo, Sara Candeias & Fernando Perdigão
    (2013) Generating a pronunciation dictionary for European Portuguese using a joint-sequence model with embedded stress assignment. Journal of the Brazilian Computer Society191.127–134. 10.1007/s13173‑012‑0088‑0
     https://doi.org/10.1007/s13173-012-0088-0 [Google Scholar]
  119. Vydrine, Valentin
    (2007) Les adjectifs en dan-gwèètaa. Mandenkan431.77–103.
     [Google Scholar]
  120. Warren-Rothlin, Andy
    (2012) Arabic script in modern Nigeria. In (eds) Roger Blench & McGill Stuart, Advances in Minority Language Research in Nigeria Vol. 1. Kay Williamson Educational Foundation African languages monographs 5, 105–21. Cologne: Rüdiger Köppe.
     [Google Scholar]
  121. Wedekind, Klaus
    (1983) A six-tone language in Ethiopia: Tonal analysis of Benčnon (Gimira). Journal of Ethiopian Studies161.129–156.
     [Google Scholar]
  122. Weiss, Yael, Tami Katzir & Tali Bitan
    (2015) Many ways to reading your vowels: Neural processing of diacritics and vowel letters in Hebrew. Neuroimage1211.10–19. 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2015.07.029
     https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2015.07.029 [Google Scholar]
/content/journals/10.1075/wll.00092.rob
Loading
  • Article Type: Research Article
Keyword(s): African languages; heterophonic homographs; Modern Hebrew; Modern Standard Arabic; tone patterns; vowel structures

Most Cited

This is a required field
Please enter a valid email address
Approval was successful
Invalid data
An Error Occurred
Approval was partially successful, following selected items could not be processed due to error