Toegepaste Taalwetenschap in Artikelen - Volume 21, Issue 1, 1985

Translating is still generally considered an ungrateful, if not impossible task. To be sure, as an interpretive reproduction of its source the translation of any text can never be more than a partial realization of the semantic, stylistic and pragmatic meanings of the original. The metatextual character of interlingual translation involves shifts which are not only due to structural differences between natural languages but also result from diverging cultural and intertextual factors (literary tradition and conventions). Hence it follows that translating is a norm-governed activity, the more since the translator has to choose between two opposing strategies: either he attempts to reproduce the functionally relevant features of his source text as adequately as possible; or he sticks to the target norms in producing an acceptable text in his mothertongue. Most translators today try to reconciliate these extremes through a happy compromise. However, translators in various ages have solved the dilemma according to views and aims characteristic of their own time and cultural milieu.From ancient times onwards up to the present age translators of renown have theorized on their activity. Many of the resulting theories contradict one another; and this should not surprise us since theorizing in this early stage signified nothing more or less than a justification of one's own strategies and methods. In that sense the majority of early theories of translation are to be regarded as individual translators1 poetics rather than intersubjectively testable statements on the art. However valuable they may have been in contributing to the production of optimum translations fitting their own historical en geographical surroundings, these prescriptive (and hence normative) approaches to translation do no longer satisfy the conditions set to present-day scientific knowledge.Since the early 1950s translation theory gradually became part of a modern discipline which calls itself Translation Studies. After a few years of dependence on both linguistics and comparative literature this discipline has gone its own way. Being interdisciplinary in nature it borrows insights and methods from other, related, disciplines. Due to recent developments its main emphasis nowadays lies on descriptive studies of translational phenomena, for which it has abandoned the traditional translatability line of thinking. Rather than on theoretical statements its future seems to depend on the student's ability to describe translation processes and their ensuing products. The descriptive course it has taken will not only safeguard the discipline from degenerating into mere theoretical speculation but may certainly foster our knowledge of what translations are and how they function in the literary circuit.

The article deals with the reception side of translation in an industrial context. It is only natural for an industrial linguist to look upon his job as a linguist. Most of his work, however, will be conceived and received by 'people'. This need not necessarily be a source of conflict, but where it is, the linguist tends to rely on the quality of his argument, which just as often does not decide the case. What is overlooked is that much of the disparity is engendered by a different bias as to what a language really is. For such bias, Western culture seems to have three basic options available, each overstressing one of the semiotic dimensions: the semantic, syntactic and pragmatic, as can be seen from linguistic models past and present. Recent work by Roy Harris has shown these options - termed by him the surrogationalist, contractualist and instrumentalist view, respectively - to have very deep roots in the development of Western society.The article argues that, what with the institutional character of a language and the important role of translation in shaping the cultural landscape of the Western world, popular (and much expert) opinion on translation - as a job or a product - might well be classable under three similar headings. An attempt is made at a trichotomy of 'positions' implicit in current reactions on translation concerning such criteria as language universals, translatability, equivalence, translation unit, etc. The resultant typology is believed to reveal constant traits in popular thought on translation. If a typology is the output of lumpers and the input to hair splitters, a lot of 'hairsplitting' in the light of Harris' analysis, or similar historical work, may be called for to improve its reality content.The article opens with an outline of the translator's position in large industries as characterized by three paradoxes: a small-scale profession within a big organization, a high-knowledge job yet lacking back-up from a prestigious academic discipline, a recent career and a very old art. This makes motivation and legitimation of the profession not an easy task. It might be easier if more were known of the sociolinguistics of translation.

For scientific research it is essential to know what has been published in one's field. Too often literature published in a language the researcher does not master is neglected. Available information is then not used,This paper outlines what can be done to access this literature and which modern resources can assist the users of foreign language literature. In particular the activities of the International Translation Centre will be discussed as well as the unique database of existing scientific and technical translations: the World Transindex.

At present, a foreign suspect in criminal cases is at the mercy of uncontrolled free forces for assistance from interpreters. He may get a "real" interpreter, an amateur, an "assistant inspector", or none at all. The quality as well as the frequency of interpreters' assistance in our administration of criminal justice remains arbitrary, and is at its best sympathetic. Dutch legislation in this area is completely inadequate and conflicts with the Treaty of Rome, leading to chaotic practices. It is a fact that no professional training is required, and it has occurred in more than one case, particularly in police headquarters, that the interpreter in question took sides. An interpreters' presence is required by law at court sessions only. As a consequence, police and legal officials repeatedly conduct examinations of suspects without the mediation of interpreters. Initiatives intended to put an end to this undesirable situation, among them one from the Netherlands Translators' Association, have come to nothing. The blame for this lies in part with the autonomous, uncooperative actions of the police and judicial officials, and with the misplaced toleration of these practices by the government. Moreover, interpreters themselves are not blameless: many take advantage of the fact that, literally and figuratively, they practice a free profession subject to few controls. Interpreters' assistance should be radically changed, both with respect to its planning and its content. There are three basic requirements:1. Professionalization: Interpreting in criminal cases should be a separate profession. Rules of conduct and professional rules, education in criminal law, together with interpreting and technical language specialization, are necessary for this.2. Intensification: Free assistance from interpreters in all those moments in criminal justice procedures which are of vital importance to the suspect is essential.3. Coordination and control: "Interpreters on-call" should be available at the Bureaus for Legal Assistance, with the assignment of professional interpreters to all criminal court cases. Along with this, an organ should be established which is charged with the responsibility for supervision and disciplinary jurisdiction.

In the course of history there have been different schools of thought about how texts should be translated, and the effect translations have on the target language literature, either directly or indirectly.Garmt Stuiveling, formerly professor of Dutch Studies at the University of Amsterdam, and for many years chairman of the Dutch Writers' Union, produced the following dictum: in a translation sixty-five per cent of what the author has tried to express, reaches the reader.In translators' circles a variety of views can be heard. This one for instance: the profession of a translator is more demanding than that of a writer. A writer uses his own style, but a translator must master a number of styles, since he translates different authors.Or this one: the achievement of a translator is equal to that of a writer; the source language version and the target language version provide texts of equal literary value.A more modest view, and the one held by the writer of the present article, could be phrased as follows: literary translation is a craft, a creative craft to be sure, but still a craft. And playing with words and stylistic features is part of that craft. A literary translator is to be compared to a performing artist, rather than his creative counterpart.It is noted that there has never been any research into the norms of present day translators. This means that judging translations, whether for purposes of reviews, a jury's decision or the awarding of grants, is often a matter of inspired guesswork. If such research were ever carried out, it should also discover whether translators actually use in their own work the translation strategies they profess to be using.Finally a selection of translating errors culled from literary works is proof that translators are not always good readers, to judge by the non-sense they sometimes manage to produce.

Similarities.Both are mediators, both remain in the background,. They speak or write in the target-language as if the author/speaker had spoken that language .Identification,no censorship - a calling.The transition from one"génie de la langue"into another. Interpreters,like psychologists and psychiatrists:originally a very Jewish profession. The role of a minority group,sociologically, in a masculine majority.- therefore:social programming. Similarity with the role of pianist accompanying a soloist. Bilingualism of children under ten , bilingual interpreters. The necessary distinction:only those who have the gift succeed. The difference between cerebral hemisphere functions in language between Westerners and Japanese-born Japanese - a total difference. American/Cuban born Japanese are bilingual, have the Western hemisphere function: linguistic-cultural programming,no genetic difference.Why possibly Japanese are not gifted for Western languages ,but are remarkable in Western music.Similarity between speed and complexity of data-collection and -processing in human_brain and computer-brain.The difference being: the .human brain can mentally/emotionally grasp and interpret underlying subtle implications and motivations that computer can not.Future possibilities of using jointly electronics and interpretation; possible future needs of communication between Russia and China and other nations.

Just like "grammar", "translation" once was a very important topic of discussion in the field of language teaching. After tens of years of a monopoly position, the influence of translation in the language teaching field started to suside in the sixties, at least in the Netherlands, where it was abolished in all secundary school exams and in many teacher training courses. However, there are signs nowadays that translation may be back in the teaching field one day. The present paper tries to examine the arguments of the various pro and contra-translation parties and to answer the question if the positions were really so diametrically opposed as they once seemed to be. It tries to distinguish between different kinds of translation. In this context, it poses the question whether the value of translation for language acquisition could depend on the proficiency level of the learner.

All lexicographers agree that dictionaries should be designed with a view to a special group of users and their specific needs. The article deals with the question what requirements should be met by a bilingual dictionary made for learners of a language at university level. It reviews first the literature on the subject of the foreign student's use of monolingual and bilingual dictionaries. The general conclusion with regard to the reference skills of students is rather pessimistic. Existing bilingual dictionaries are made for users with a good knowledge of the foreign language, but are not explicit enough for learners. A bilingual learner's dictionary should take account of this.The following aspects are discussed: the macrostructure and the microstructure of such a dictionary, meaning discrimination, and the syntactic information that should be provided. Some concrete examples of dictionary entries illustrating the principles sketched are provided.

In the first part of the paper a survey is given of the (mainly negative) effects of subordinating the greater part of skills and "subject"training in the "old" programme to the translations, which served as the main didactic and exam procedure as well as the implicit objective for what was after all supposed to be a teacher training course. Next, a sketch is given of the process and results of reprogramming and "renovating" the old training with special attention to the function of the translations in the "new" programme which have now been integrated with/subordinated to skillstraining in general and to reading and writing in particular. Finally, the "old" and "new" programmes are compared and contrasted as to their merits and effectiveness as teacher training courses and a few recommendations are made for the development of teaching materials which are geared to the new and different role of the translations in part-time teacher training English second and third grade in the Netherlands.

A translation dictionary has a linking function between the explanatory dictionaries of one's native language (L1) and those of a foreign language (L2). Dutch dictionaries fail to take account of the needs of those who learn Dutch as L2. The receptive and productive needs of an L2-learner vary with the level attained in L2. An alternative to the traditional two-column dictionary is outlined. In an English-Dutch translation dictionary, for instance, column 1 could contain the text of a dictionary like Hornby's ALD, column 2 and Ll-translation of all the definitions, and column 3 the Ll-equivalent of the lexical items.

A technical translator needs documentation to acquire knowledge of a certain specialised field and to keep that knowledge up to date. Even the most specialised dictionaries often fall short, since the development of technology is per definition ahead of any efforts to lay it down on paper.This is why it is necessary for the translator regularly to consult specialised literature. Not only does he so encounter the correct, and latest, terminology, he also gets acquainted with a particular style or way of expressing oneself customary in the relevant field. All this is bound to improve the quality of his translations. Many technical or scientific journals contain advertisements which are an almost inexhaustible source of information for the translator. The advertisers describe their products, the performances of these products and their ranges of application. A wealth of the most up-to-date specialised terminology is freely available here. There are many possibilites for recording and storing the terms thus found. The simplest one is the card index file. If the translator has access to equipment for storage of data in an electronic memory the range of possibilities is considerably widened. Electronically stored knowledge of this type may later be used to form part of a program for computer aided translation.

A good translation from Dutch into a foreign language subsumes a variety of linguistic adjustments at the level of text and syntax. The nature of these linguistic adjustments depends on the linguistic characteristics of the text type to be translated. The linguistic characteristics of a text type can vary enormously from the source language to the target language.An analysis of three German translations of one and the same Dutch text reveals that it is very difficult to describe and formalize the nature of the linguistic adjustments and that, in consequence, they can scarcely be taught in a systematic way.This calls for an eclectic and pragmatic approach to the teaching of translation with ample consideration to be given to the reading of literary texts. Only in this way, can the apprentice translator become sufficiently well acquainted with the FL to be able to make text type decisions quickly and easily.

This paper is essentially a progress report on- the European Community terminology data bank, known as Eurodicautom,- the machine translation projects Systran and Eurotra- access to Community, European and American data banks.Eurodicom is now a fully developed electronic dictionary, containing about 334.000 terminological units (single words, phrases and abbreviations) in English, 318.000 in French, 239.000 in German, 150.000 in Italian, 145.000 in Danish, 136.000 in Dutch, 64.000 in Spanish, 10.000 in Portuguese and 700 in Latin (5 November 1984). Translations are accompanied by descriptieve, linguistic and documentary information (viz. definition, context, source, originating office, author, subject code and reliability rating). Eurodicautom is also available to the public on-line (for details apply to Echo, Customer Service, 15 avenue de La Faïencerie, L-1510 Luxemburg, tel. 352-20764).At present Systran provides machine translations for the Language pairs English-French, French-English and English-Italian. English-German is being introduced and French-German will become available shortly. Consideration is being given to developing systems from either French or English into Greek, Danish or Dutch. (Report Ian M. Pigott, 29 May 1984). Rapid post-editing (emphasis on accuracy or full post-editing (thorough revision) is always required. Work on Eurotra, a machine translation system of advanced design, is now well under way (Preparatory phase, 2 years, is all but terminated). Unlike Systran (language pairs, one way) Eurotra will be set up to supply translations from any source language available in the system into a number of target languages. The first results are due by 1989, after a phase of basic and applied linguistic research (2 years) and a phase of stabilization of the linguistic models and evaluation of results (18 months). There is a brief outline of the objectives and the programme of work in Council Decision 82/752/EEC, Official Journal of the European Communities, 1982 No L 317, pp. 19-23. Translators can now be assisted by Information Officers to consult titles, abstracts and full articles in some 140 Community, European and American data systems.