Toegepaste Taalwetenschap in Artikelen - Volume 3, Issue 1, 1977

A short history is sketched of the selection of vocabulary in foreign language teaching. The author briefly touches on the position and function of Latin in classical times and the changes thereof in the Renaissance.Gradually, from the end of the Middle Ages French took over as an international language. So French had to be taught. And vocabulary to be selected. Frequency of occurrence as a principle of selection was not consciously applied, however, before the 20th century. The remainder of the article deals with the history of the frequency lists in this century and explains the methods used, the difficulties, the advancement since computers assist the selector, and the appli-cations to foreign language teaching. The author concludes with a short discussion of why selection is still a problem and according to him still necessary.

Problems with vocabulary selection.Comparative research into the criteria which are used in selecting a vocabulary for foreign language teaching has showed that the criterion of frequency yields the best selection.The criticisms of Frequency-lists (such as: F-lists yield too few words; F-lists don't contain nouns; F-lists contain words which don't seem to be very useful) appear to be based upon an incomplete understanding of the structure of a F-list, which is, in fact, considered as an unclassified alphabetical list. This holds also for the pilot research projects on vocabulary selection initiated by the CMLVT.In order to determine the most "useful" words, the F-list has to fulfill certain conditions:1) The corpus on which the F-list is based, must be representative of the kind of language one wants to teach.Most lists in use in teaching, among which the 'Français Fondamental, do not fulfill this condition.2) The frequencies must be sufficiently reliable.The lower the frequency, the more accidental the composition of the list will be, and consequently, the more accidental the order of words with that frequency. Most lists, including the Français Fondamental do not fulfill this condition.3) The F-list must contain enough words.This condition is all but neglected in the literature. The selection made from a F-list for teaching purposes is rather arbitrary. The FF selects a little more than 800 words from a F-list of about 8000, whereas Juilland selects 5000 words from a list of approximately 15.000. If the list contains too few words which fulfill the conditions 1 and 2, the result will be a lack of useful words.The criticisms of the criterion of frequency are unjustified. The criti-cism should concern the irresponsible dealing with the criterion of frequency, which yields unsatisfactory results.

At the Institute for Applied Sociology of the University of Nijmegen, an investigation into foreign language needs of several groups in Dutch society has been carried out in 1975 through 1977. Questionnaires were submitted to these different groups, e.g. to former pupils of secondary schools. The questionnaire consisted mainly of a list of 24 descriptions of situations in which foreign languages are used. In these descriptions the significant features of language situations are systematically varied. For each situa-tion we asked if and how frequently it occurs and if the knowledge of the languages learnt is sufficient for this kind of situation.The results of the investigation show large differences in language needs (defined as actual use of the foreign language and shortcomings in the knowledge of that language in certain situations) both between the former pupils of the different types of secondary schools as well as between the languages most commonly taught in Dutch schools, French, German and English. More specifically it was found that the actual use of foreign languages occurs more frequently among former pupils of certain vocational schools (especially technical schools) than among former pupils of general secondary schools. French appears to be used less frequently than German and English. English is used by a somewhat larger group than German, but this does not hold for all groups. Former pupils of technical schools use German as much as English.The resulting data can be used to choose objectives for foreign language teaching. There is however no simple and direct way from language needs to objectives. In choosing objectives on the basis of findings on language needs, one will have to decide which measure of language needs is taken into account and how this measure (or these measures) is (are) used. If we decide for example to take the size of the group that has actually used a foreign language in one of the situations as a criterion for the choice of that situation as a part of the objectives of language teaching, we will then have to decide where we draw the line between situations that are and situations that are not important enough to be chosen. In other words, we have to decide how large the group of language users must be. It is evident that there is no shorter way from language needs to objectives than a carefully argued choice of measures and of the use of these measures.

Aspects de systèmes clos et ouverts.Sans être linguiste appliqué (et par conséquent sans etre à même de dire ce qu'on entend par la linguistique appliquée), l'auteur essaie à propos du sujet Aspects de systèmes clos et ouverts de confronter les vrais linguistes appliqués avec un certain nombre de doutes, en ce qui concerne la théorie de système dans la cybernétique.Certains cyberneticiens préconisent une strategie dite double", un moyen pour éviter d'être enfermé dans un système. Cette stratégie double pourrait conduire à un ordre à l'intérieur duquel aussi bien l'incertain et l'aléatoire que ce qui signifie pour tout système un désordre inacceptable, c'est à dire l'absence de système, peuvent s'insinuer.Sans être diplôme des sciences de l'éducation, l'auteur essaie d'intéresser les linguistes appliqués qui ont,, en général, recours â beaucoup de disciplines, mais trop peu aux sciences de l'éducation, aux problèmes des curricula clos et ouverts.En tant que professeur d'une langue seconde, l'auteur plaidera, pour terminer, en faveur du professeur libre qui, avec ses élèves, se refuse à être enfermé dans un système dont la conception est démodée.

The Threshold Level model: a mirror of language use.This paper investigates the speaking and listening potential of a foreign language user of the proposed Threshold Level. Van Ek 1975 serves as the main source of information for this study.In order to carry out this investigation the following procedure vas adopted:1. for each topic listed in chapter 8 of van Ek 1975 it was determined what course a conversation on that topic was likely to take.2. subsequently van Ek 1975 was consulted to find out if the words and structures needed for these imaginary conversations would be available to a Threshold Level speaker. If a word could not be found in the lists of words it was paraphrased and the words needed for that paraphrase also looked up in van Ek 1975.3. for the remaining words listed under each topic in van Ek 1975 it was determined what possible use a Threshold Level speaker could make of them in a conversation on that topic.Some examples of results of this procedure are given. These examples show that Threshold Level speakers will be able to begin a conversation on a topic but will not be capable of carrying on such a conversation. From this it is concluded that there is a clash between one of the main objectives of the Threshold Level ( the objective of Threshold Level speakers being able to carry on a conversation in the foreign language) and the linguistic means provided for it.Some other examples are given to show that in developing the model no effective account has been taken of the situations in which a Threshold Level language user will have to figure as a listener.The rest of the examples quoted from van Ek 1975 serve to show that a Threshold Level speaker will probably be able to:1. speak in clichés when engaged in activities connected with tourism or 'going out' (buying tickets, making hotel reservations, asking the way etc.).2. give some factual information about himself (age, family, job, home etc.).

This paper consist of four parts.1. National teaching -learning curricula. Concepts such as teaching -learning curriculum, planning-document (e.g. "schoolworkplan") and its functions are elaborated. Reasons are„given for the absence of a systematic and integral approach to the development of national teaching - learning curricula.2. National teaching - learning curricula between the poles of centralization and decentralization.Centralizing and decentralizing tendencies should be considered complementary rather than polar. An antithetic either - or approach is rejected and prplaced by an.antinomic and-and view. This paper advocates a close and well-balanced cooperation between the national level (the creation of a national framework) and the local level (the concrete operationalization of that framework).3. Consequences for teachers.This part discusses three functions of curricula, the connections between curriculum - knowledge - power, the role of teachers in the cooperative relationships mentioned under 2. In this context the inservice education and training of teachers should have a high priority.4. Aanzet voor de ontwikkeling van een onderwijsleerplan moderne vreemde talen.This memorandum by van Ek en Groot is summarized and commented upon.

Question posée dans cette interventioni dans quelle mesure la formulation des objectifs de l'apprentissage d'une langue étrangère doit-elle tenir oompte des objectifs visés par l'enseignement de la lecture de textes (littéraires ou non)?On critique la " Nota Aanzet voor de ontwikkeling van een onder-wijsplan moderne vreemde talen"· La "Note", Jugée trop utilitariste, ne tient pas compte de l'effet rétro-actif que pourraient avoir, sur l'apprentissage proprement dit de la langue au niveau-seuil, les activités requises par les objectifs pédagogiques généraux. En outre on se demande s'il est admissible de déduire aussi uniformé-ment que le fait la "Note", les aptitudes réceptives (l'écoute et la lecture) des aptitudes productives.Question posée dans cette interventioni dans quelle mesure la formulation des objectifs de l'apprentissage d'une langue étrangère doit-elle tenir oompte des objectifs visés par l'enseignement de la lecture de textes (littéraires ou non)?On critique la " Nota Aanzet voor de ontwikkeling van een onder-wijsplan moderne vreemde talen"· La "Note", Jugée trop utilitariste, ne tient pas compte de l'effet rétro-actif que pourraient avoir, sur l'apprentissage proprement dit de la langue au niveau-seuil, les activités requises par les objectifs pédagogiques généraux. En outre on se demande s'il est admissible de déduire aussi uniformé-ment que le fait la "Note", les aptitudes réceptives (l'écoute et la lecture) des aptitudes productives.On plaide pour une redéfinition des objectifs pour chacun des quatre éléments de la connaissance de la langue, en fonction de la situation particulière de chaque langue étrangère et en tenant compte des objectifs pédagogiques généraux.Une visée moins strictement utilitaire et une différenciation quant aux langues et aux aptitudes s'imposent.

In the introduction the author makes three points he considers import-ant, although they have no direct bearing on the main topic.1. Much of the criticism on The Threshold Level in the Netherlands unfortunately focuses on the choice of functions and the list of structures and vocabulary. The New direction The Threshold Level suggests is not always fully appreciated.2. Teachers that know how to motivate their pupils, get results what-ever techniques they use.3. All those who are actively engaged in the definition of objectives should at all times be aware of the consequences for the teachers who will have to implement them.If we accept functional notional objectives that take the needs of the individual learner into account, we shall have to realize that it will be impossible to give exact definitions of any level. The word "approach" is therefore very adequate.Functional objectives show the way to go and give therefore more support to the teachers in the planning of their lessons.The approach will also stimulate motivation. For testers, however, the functional approach will cause more problems.Functional objectives are defined in terms of behaviour. This also determines the nature of the teaching techniques to be applied.Skating can only be learned by practice!Theoretical information about the language may help the learner, but only in so far as it is relevant for the learning process. The same is true for the way in which this information is given.Teaching material used to be graded carefully with the structional approach. With the functional approach the ordering will have to be done on a different basis.New techniques will have to be developed.The author concludes by giving examples and showing that in F.L.T., whatever the nature of the objectives, the teaching techniques should always be communicative.

The author presents her experiences of teaching several languages in Holland and Argentina.She observed that the person who is studying his first foreignlanguage finds himself psychologically in another situation than the student learning his second or third language.The former easily separates the components of a new languagesystem from those of his basic language. For the latter the separationof two or more systems is a difficult task.The more the foreign language systems have in common, the more cognitive separation is necessary. If this is not possible, the active use of one of the languages is likely to be blocked suddenly.Students at advanced levels of a foreign language state that earlier acquired skills in the active use of other foreign languages come back as suddenly as they disappeared.The separation of two or more foreign language systems in the student's mind can be stimulated by different environments for each language. Therefore it is desirable to recall in the class room the natural setting of the foreign country.The author offers six hypotheses which may be tested.

Dans cette contribution, l'auteur traite 2 questions fondamentales concernant le développement des objectifs successifs de l'enseignement d'une langue étrangère dans le cadre de l'éducation générale et de la formation culturelle.1. Il est exptiqué pourquoi la démarche qui consiste à définir un objectif terminal assurant une certaine autonomie des élèves et à e déduire ensuite des objectifs intermédiaires par voie d'éliminatio est plus logique que la méthode qui essaie de construire des mini-objectifs successifs en commençant par des "niveaux-seuil".2. Le deuxième problème concerne l'attribution de priorité à l'une des aptitudes ("skills") qu'on a l'habitude de distinguer: la compréhen sion orale (sic), la compréhension écrite, la production orale et 1 production écrite.L'auteur essaie de démontrer qu'il faut donner la priorité aux aptitudes réceptives et, parmi celles-ci, à la compréhension écrite