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Toegepaste Taalwetenschap in Artikelen - Volume 8, Issue 1, 1980
Volume 8, Issue 1, 1980
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Nederlandse Sociolinguistiek: Wat Heeft De Leerplanontwikkeling Daaraan?
Author(s): Jan Sturm and Hans van Tuylpp.: 39–55 (17)More LessThe important changes that were expected as a result of developments in sociolinguistics both in teaching in general and in teaching the vernacular did not occur. Neither was curriculum development as an instrument to bring about these changes really affected by the momentous change in linguistics of that period and after.One of the possible reasons may well be the lack of communication between sociolinguists and the makers of curricula. This article is meant to start the dialogue. It brings to the fore the gap between the results of sociolinguistic research and the perception teachers have of the problems investigated. In it the proposition is made to change the usual research design to such an extent as to create a situation in which the workers in education are more directly involved in formulating the problems.
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Toepassingsgericht Onderzoek Van Het Onderwijs in Een Diglossiesituatie
Author(s): J. van den Hoogen and H. Kuijperpp.: 56–75 (20)More LessKerkrade is a Dutch town, near the border of Germany, where a dialect is spoken that is rather different from the standard language and has much in common with German. The linguistic situation can be described as a diglossia-situation.From 1973 to 1978 an integrated sociolinguistic and educational research project has been carried out to find out what kind of problems predominant-ly dialect speaking children experience in primary education as a result of their language background. From a sociolinguistic viewpoint this study was based upon the difference conception. Methodologically educational re-sults were treated as a variable dependent not only on characteristics of the children (such as language background and social background) but also on educational features (such as verbal interaction in the classroom). A broad conception of educational results was used that concerned not only cognitive achievement of the children, repeating classes, teacher advice for further education, but also features such as language attitudes, linguistic insecurity, fear of failure, etc.From the results of this study 3 areas could be derived that need special attention to improve primary education for dialect speaking children.1. Verbal interaction in the classroom needs to be reorganized in such a way that dialect speaking children can feel more comfortable at school. To achieve this standard language must no longer be seen as the only acceptable way of speaking at school. A "natural" choice should be made between both language varieties the children can speak, dependent on the age of the children, the subject of conversation or instruction and some situational aspects of conversation. A major condition for the success of such a variable structure of communication seems to be mutual willing-ness to accept each others language behavior.2. Since standard Dutch is the target language for all children and most dialect speaking children are less able to use that language in a grammatically correct and communicatively acceptable way, more systematic attention should be paid to the specific problems of these children.3. Perhaps the most important and certainly the most complex area is that of the attitudes of both dialect and standard language speaking children and teachers towards language behavior and language users. Since May 1979 teachers, parente and institutions for linguistic and educational research, curriculum development and pedagogical assistance have worked together to find an adequate approach for the problems in these three areas.In this paper first a brief summary is given of the guiding principles, the goals and some of the major results of the study carried out between 1973 and 1978. The second part concerns the "innovation-phase", that started in 1979 and goes on until May 1981. An exposition is given of how in educational practice innovatory activities are planned and carried out, what our first experiences are and in what way research can contribute to all this.
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De Invoering Van Het Vak Fries in Het Basisonderwijs
Author(s): G. van der Duim and A. de Hooppp.: 76–84 (9)More LessIn Friesland - a northern province of Holland - people speak two languages: Dutch as the standard language and Frisian as a second language. Through the ages the Dutch language has become the dominant language, used in the higher regions of life in society; the Frisian language was only used at home and in the streets. Since the 19th century three motives have caused a change in this pattern.First there is the social-culturai motive in the beginning of that century, leading to the desire to maintain and develop the Frisian culture and its language. Causes were among others the climate of Romanticism and the indus-trialisation of society. The second is called the pedagogical-didactic motive, which crops up about 1930. In this period of the so-called "Reform pedagogy" the attention in education is focused on the child, notably the Frisian child and its bilingual situation. In 1950 it led to experiments in bilingual education. The last change is caused by the political-ideological motive. In recent years minorities all over the world have been trying to get their culture and language acknowledged. In educational terms they want their children to be taught initially in their own mothertongue. Moreover - in the following schoolyears - they want school to pay attention to the Frisian language.Each of the three motives has caused a change in the Elementary Education Act. The first made it optional for schools to pay some attention to "the regional language" in 1937. The second caused another change in 1955. Now the Frisian language was mentioned explicitly, but was only meant to fill the gap between home- and schoollanguage. The latest change on account of the third motive in 1975 allowed the use of the Frisian language as a teaching-medium throughout the elementary school, whereas in 1980 it will be introduced as an obligatory subject in the elementary school in Friesland. To make the implementation of the Frisian language as an obligatory sub-ject possible, several courses for elementary school teachers have been started since 1976. To examine to what extent the Frisian language was implemented in school we conducted a survey. It appeared that 80% of the teachers already implemented the subject. This is a high percentage, because it is at the moment still optional. Most of the teachers who teach classes with chiefly Frisian speaking pupils have begun to teach the new subject. But also a lot of teachers who teach classes with chiefly Dutch speaking children have done so.Of course all teachers work with different goals and methods adapted to the pupils in their classes. Most of the teachers were motivated to teaching Frisian. Frisian speaking pupils turned out to be easier to motivate than Dutch speaking pupils. It is possible that these children have taken over a negative attitude from their parents. Therefore it is very important to involve the parents in the Frisian lessons and give them information about the new subject at school. Most of the teachers teach Frisian for about one hour a week. They use the Dutch language as a medium during the other lessons. Another group of teachers also spend about an hour a week on Frisian, but they use the Frisian as well as the Dutch language as a medium in the other lessons.We conclude that after the latest change in the Elementary Education Act in 1975 the Frisian schools have made a progressive step towards the full bilingual education model.
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Sociolinguïstiek in de Onderwijspraktijk een Discussiebijdrage met een Praktische Suggestie
Author(s): Sjaak Kroonpp.: 85–109 (25)More LessThis paper suggests that the orientation of sociolinguistics is becoming less practical.The initially practical orientation of sociolinguistics, which was almost programmatic in nature, gave rise, notably among teachers, to certain expectations concerning the educational relevance and practical utility of sociolinguistic insights and sociolinguistic research. These expecta-tions are not in accordance with the fact that sociolinguistics is increasingly developing into a descriptive discipline which has hardly any educational significance. As a consequence sociolinguistics often keeps itself apart from education.We try to explain this state of affairs, considering social developments and the related development of sociolinguistics as a discipline. Finally we consider the possible contribution of sociolinguistics towards educational practice in general. More specifically we describe a series of lessons which has been developed on the basis of sociolinguistic insights. These lessons have been tried out in the classroom.
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De Friese Meertaligheid Sociolinguistisch Onderzocht
Author(s): Durk Gorterpp.: 110–122 (13)More LessA sketch is given of the Frisian language situation. It is estimated that roughly 6/10 of the population have Frisian as the language of the home, 3/10 Dutch and 1/10 a regional dialect.Recent developments in Frisian society have led to a weaker situation for Frisian. A number of factors are mentioned: industrialization, mobility, education, media and changing social norms. A problem is whether the direction of these forces can be changed. Most promising is the language policy of the provincial administration. The national government does not have a consistent language-policy. Perhaps some positive influence may be gained from European level policies.After these introductory comments research-projects are discussed which have empirically investigated (some aspect of) the language situation. In all 60 small and large, well-known and less known projects are catego-rized on the basis of different characteristics: - language in which reported- period in which done; - main topic (with further specifications);- reasons to do such projects.The next section gives an outline of somewhat larger and generally more scientifically based projects, which are being done at the moment. These are: - a survey of language use in special education;- an investigation of goals for Frisian in primary schools;- a study of the social factors in certain phonological changes;- an empirical investigation of interference;- a plan to study language differences as an interview-effect;- a large scale population survey trying to answer the (well-known) question: "Who speaks what language to whom and why?".The final conclusion is that more research can and needs to be done.
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Taalgebruik op de Markt: Vijf Markten in Taipei
Author(s): M.E. van den Bergpp.: 123–142 (20)More LessModern standard Chinese (MSC) was introduced in Taiwan after the second world war in 1945, when the island once more became part of the Chinese political system. In 1956 the population consisted for 74 per cent of Minnan and for 13 per cent of Hakka. Both are immigrant groups from the Chinese mainland, who have come to Taiwan since the seventeenth century, and speak mutually unintelligible Chinese dialects. The remaining part of the population was formed by Chinese who came to Taiwan after 1945.In order to be able to determine the extent to which MSC has spread in the society unobtrusive observations of language use were made in five markets in Taipei city. Markets in Taiwan are the main channels for the supply of fresh vegetables, fruits, fish and meat, and for that reason considered as suitable places for the study of language spread.The instrument used was a modified version of that developed by Cooper and Carpenter (1976) and by Rosenbaum ä. . (1977). Apart from time, market, enumerator and commodity, the observation categories were interaction type (business transaction, touting, conversation), role of participants in the speech act (salesperson, customer), their age and sex and the language(s) they used for the interaction.MSC is used by both participants roughly equally for business transactions. The salespeople accommodate their language use to that of the customers. As to touting, this tendency is furthermore reflected by a relatively high proportion of MSC in the utterances of the salespeople. Among the customers males use relatively more MSC than females. The same is true for the oldest age group of both sexes. In the older city districts relatively less MSC is used than in the newer districts.
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De Studie Van Stadsdialekt: Van Dialektologie, Empirische Linguistiek en Sociolinguistiek
Author(s): Roeland van Houtpp.: 143–162 (20)More LessFrom the beginning, sociolinguistics has mainly been focusing on the study of urban dialects. The sociolinguistic approach seems to complement dialectology, as dialectology is mainly oriented towards rural dialects. However, this vision of dialectology (oriented towards the rural part of society) being complemented by sociolinguistics (oriented towards the urban part of society) has to be rejected. It is rather a matter of contrast. Sociolinguistics emphasizes the empirical synchronic study of language variation. Dialectology, on the other hand, emphasizes the diachronic dimension of language variation, because this discipline is looking for the norms of a language community rather than for the actual forms of language in that language community.Until now, sociolinguistics can be considered as a linguistic discipline especially. The development of an empirical basis of linguistics was one of the main objects. However, too strong an emhpasis on this aspect pushed the sociological part of the amalgamation of "sociolinguistics" too much into the background.In this paper I pay some extra attention to the sociological part of sociolinguistics by analyzing some data of a sociolinguistic investigation held in the town of Nijmegen. These data concern the opinions and views of the autochthonous population of Nijmegen about the dialect of their town. Special attention is paid to the question of where the dialect of Nijmegen is spoken, and by whom. Firstly, these data tentatively suggest the existence of a notion of language ideology: some current beliefs are found about the dialect of Nijmegen, beliefs that form the basis of language behaviour and the basis of develop einen ts in the relationship between dialect and standard language. Secondly, the data indicate the importance of two urban disciplines: urban sociology and urban geography.Two important aspects of these disciplines are discussed. The first aspect is the history and the development of urbanisation. The second aspect is the internal social and geographical structure of urban regions. The conclusion is that sociolinguistics has always been concious of the heterogeneous and socially complex character of urban regions, but that it has paid too little attention to the internal structure of this kind of region.
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Stadsdialect en Streekdialect: Hoe Denken de Sprekers Over Elkaar?
Author(s): A.F. Florijnpp.: 163–183 (21)More LessIn this paper an outline is given of an investigation of language attitudes. In a matched guise experiment rural (Westfrisian) and urban (Amsterdam) subjects were confronted with rural and urban accented speech and had to give judgments on the factors 'competence/ambitiousness', 'personal integrity', 'social attractiveness' and 'toughness'. The purpose of the study was 1. to collect data comparable with similar research in other countries; 2. to explore the feasibility of a unifying approach to the two types of language differentiation: regional and social. In the tentative conclusions below, reference is made to the following treatments:(i) rural subjects give judgments of urban speakers; (ii) urban subjects give judgments of rural speakers; (iii) urban subjects give judgments of urban speakers; (iv) rural subjects give judgments of rural speakers.It appears that accented speakers are always stigmatized as less competent, but urban speakers more so than rural ones. For urban judges, personal integrity is associated with standard speech. For rural judges, this is not the case. Social attractiveness is associated with accented speech, but this effect is mitigated under treatment (iv) - in this case the origin of the speaker is more important than his speech variety. Toughness is associated with accented speech, but under treatment (ii) the effect is not great: rural speakers are considered less tough by urban judges, even when they use substandard language. Note that rural people do not consider themselves to be less tough (treatment iv).Language is an important means whereby groups of people differentiate themselves from other groups. The importance of this instrument will increase when other differentiators are not readily available, due, i.a., to the complexity and diffuseness of the social environment. The opposition between regional and social language differentiation is not a useful one. Both urban and regional dialects are social dialects. Both kinds of varieties carry the same value for their speakers: 'I belong to this group'. Both are determined by the same factors; the difference lies in the different weights of each factor: the ways in which the groups are formed.
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Over Humane en A-Humane Taal.
Author(s): A. Angevaarepp.: 185–199 (15)More LessI want to distinguish between two fundamental modes of being. The primary mode is typified by activities that are absolutely unique and at the same time absolutely universal, such as being born, living, growing up, eating, working, playing, loving, dying. These activities originate from my undivided being. The secondary mode is typified by activities that are socially and culturally determined. I perform these as a person (personamask). When I act as an individual I cannot be replaced by someone else; it is impos-sible to measure these activities (they have no 'market-value') and I don't learn them in the literal sense - all this in contradistinction to my social or role-activities.Accordingly I want to distinguish between human and a-human language (the terms have no ethical implications), or between the I-mode and the YOU-mode and between two resulting ways of speaking. I can speak as an individual and as a person and these ways of speaking are typified in compliance with the above-mentioned characteristics. Human language is perhaps a somewhat neglected phenomenon in linguistics. An allied phenomenon is the tendency in our culture to transfer individual speaking to the domain of speaking as a person.When I mark off these distinctions against certain dimensions in socio-pragmalinguistics I find that orientation on the illocutionary effect plays a prominent part in personal speaking. Splitting up myself into speaker and hearer I project myself into the hearer, planning my formulations from his point of view to make myself understood. When I speak as an individual I am not primarily focused on communication and the illocutionary effect. Making myself understood to an actual or potential hearer is subordinate to the adequate expression of what lies on my mind.Moreover, when I speak as a person I am often focused on the perlocutionary effect, that I can try to act upon by means of conditional relevance and selection of the correct code. The options I have between formal varieties are in fact to be explained in terms of the directive function of language. When I speak as an individual the idea of communicative interaction recedes into the background and the issue of the perlocutionary effect is left out. Concerning the substance of my speaking I have at my disposal a register of words, expressions, syntactic constructions and last but not least para-linguistic means that correspond with this expressive function of language.Probably personal speaking has a set of distinctions that are character-ized in terms of different distances from individual speaking. When the relation between individual and personal speaking goes astray, the distancing from my individual 'I1 can turn into alienation from myself.
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Over Ik-taal, Je/men-taal en Elk-taal
Author(s): Geert Koefoedpp.: 200–208 (9)More LessIn western societies there are many mechanisms and processes at work that seduce people to give up their LANGUAGE in exchange for all kinds of CODES. By CODE I mean all those varieties which are directed toward societal (cultural or sub-cultural) approval. By LANGUAGE I mean language in its two essentially human functions: individual expression of one's own thoughts and feelings, and individual evaluation of one's own experiences ("making sense"). CODES are defined by their "market value", LANGUAGE by its intrinsic, human value.Speaking a CODE is speaking in what we call the YOU-mode; it is always monitor-controlled, I listen to myself as a representative of the society, as a kind of "judge", not as a friend. When speaking LANGUAGE (the I-mode), I ignore questions of form in terms of appropriateness and pay only atten-tion to form in function of what I am trying to say.A CODE is a means of recognition for members of a certain group; it can also express group solidarity. But for intimacy LANGUAGE is needed. Having presented a few examples of CODES and one example of a speaker speaking in the I-mode (from a story by the Dutch writer Simon Carmiggelt, significantly entitled "Man"), I discuss (serious) talk with a friend as a form of intimacy in language. Some characteristics of this type of conversation are:- the disappearance of all kinds of group shibboleths (CODE-markerš);- simpler syntax, more common words, fewer learned words;- decrease of speech tempo, long pauses, within turns (to find the right words) and between turns.Such a conversation is seldom the exchange of somehow "pre-existing" messages. On the contrary, speaking itself is the process of giving sense to one's experiences. Notions as developed in speech act theory seem hardly applicable to it.Speaking in the I-mode can also lead to mutual recognition, but not as members of a specific group or category, but as man to man. This recognition does not require that partners in a conversation speak the same language in a formal sense. So one speaker may speak general Dutch and the other speaker a local dialect. When both speak as an individual, in the I-mode, recogni-tion will take place because of the Universal Base of LANGUAGE which we call EVERYMAN'S LANGUAGE.
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Humane Taal en Afstandelijkheidscodes
Author(s): Henk Ruessinkpp.: 209–218 (10)More LessAfter a selection from the remarks made by students about their preferen-ces towards writing in the I-mode, the YOU-mode or the ONE-mode, I propose two hypotheses:1. There is a certain connection between the degree of self-experience and self-responsibility (primary existence) and the choice to speak or write in the I-, YOU- or ΟΝΕ-mode, but apparently it also holds that the choice of one of those modes restricts or elaborates the space a person has to express himself.More generally stated:There is a certain interaction between the way of existence of a speaker or writer and the way of self-denomination in his utterances.2. There is a certain connection between the degree to which a speaker or writera) has knowledge about himself and wants to be responsible for his feelings, thoughts and acts;b) guards or unveils his intimacy towards a hearer or reader;c) wants to be involved in or responsible for a process or activity outside his body;and the way he denominates himself or the outside process or activity in his utterances.I give some examples of ways of linguistic alienation, and propose an arrangement of the degrees of alienation in the same way as is done in language for local distances:HERE THERE YONDER SOMEWHERE NOWHEREI I, as a.. YOU ONE NONE(self) (increasing self-separation) (self-ignoring) (self-eliminating)I expect that children with a very sensitive linguistic intuition, draw conclusions about the reliability of adults from the way they use alienation codes; that human beings are or become strangers to one another, or are more attached as friends and lovers by using alienation codes or direct human language; that relational, social and economic victims advertise themselves as potential victims by the way they use alienation codes and do not recognize their potential oppressors by the way they use alienation codes.The main field of linguistic study as human linguistics lies in making clear what the differences are between direct human language and alienation codes.
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Ideologie en Interaktie-Analyse
Author(s): D. Hartveldtpp.: 219–230 (12)More LessIn a functional theory it is always important to state within what framework something is said to be functioning.In this paper interaction-analysis is approached from a functional point of view, and thus the above statement is applicable.A sketch is given of the possible frameworks (levels) within which inter-action can be shown to be functioning. They are respectively, from the deepest to the most superficial level: the ideological level, the level of the speech-event, split into the two subleveis of organisation and content, and the level of the actual utterances and turns at these. The deeper levels pervade the more superficial levels, so that interactional elements can be shown to function within all these levels at the same time. E.g. in the conditions on speech-acts (which are functions of utte-rances) we find various notions pertaining to the ideology of the concerning community, especially those which point to the rights and obligations of the speakers and hearers, dependent on their (possible) roles, status etc. Examples are given of interaction in which norms and values play a signi-ficant role, norms regarding what is and what is not a speech-event, what is and what is not appropriate behaviour during dinner, what is a fitting subject to discuss in a waiting-room and what is not, etc. Throughout the suggestion is made that a proper analysis of discourse can only be given if all functional levels are paid attention to. At the same time it is maintained that a proper analysis of society cannot be achieved without the analysis of actual human interaction.
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Vaktaal op School: Een Literatuuronderzoek Met Konsekwenties
Author(s): Ton Kusters and Helge Bonsetpp.: 231–245 (15)More LessThis study of the literature has provided us with a comprehensive bibliography concerning languages for special purposes. Dissapointingly most publications do not deal with our main problem: languages for special purposes at school. The publications do, however, contain scattered pieces of information that had consequences for our ideas of:a. what languages for special purposes areb. the problemi that languages for special purposes can cause at school.A.We make the following distinctions in languages for special purposes:1. the language of one subject (e.g. the language of hunting);2. the general aspect of languages for special purposes;3. the language of one school subject (e.g. the language of biology lessons);4. the general aspect of languages f or special purposes at school.We have concerned ourselves with the domains 3 and 4. As a register a language for special purposes has language and non-language characteristics. We have opted for a wide definition of languages for special purposes so that we can identify all communicative problems connected with these registers.B.Languages for special purposes can be problematic in education in the following ways:1. A language for special purposes as used by teachers (specialists), is a difficult register for pupils (laymen);2. Alongside implicit use of languages for special purposes (problem 1) it is possible that a teacher will want to pay explicit attention to the general aspect of languages for special purposes or that he will teach his pupils a special register. Consequently the aims, the organi-zation and the possibilities of explicit language for special purposes-teaching become an educational problem, (problem 2)3. Languages for special purposes can be a specific learning exercise for foreign/second-language teaching.The solution to the first problem must be sought in an analytical structure, with which the teacher can determine which communication problems are caused by his language use. The result of the study of the literature is, that we now are in a position to formulate better the questions that relate to this problem,The solution to the second problem depends on the teacher's conception of the social and educational consequences of languages for special purposes and his view of education. The consequence of this study is a list of proposals of what form teaching language for special purposes would have to take.The third problem is outside our area of investigation.
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Volume 86 (2011)
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