Toegepaste Taalwetenschap in Artikelen - Volume 86, Issue 1, 2011

In the official report on learning trajectories ('doorlopende leerlijnen') it is specified which achievement level students have to reach at different thresholds in the Dutch educational system: at the change from primary to secondary education, and at the different thresholds from secondary education to either intermediate vocational education (mbo), higher vocational education (hbo), or university (wo). In this paper we will discuss (1) several misconceptions surrounding the 'doorlopende leerlijnen' and (2) the feasibility of the norms imposed for reading and spelling. It is concluded that, on average, students do reach the norms imposed by the 'doorlopende leerlijnen', but that a relatively large proportion of students in the lower tracks of vocational education fail to do so.

Recently, general standards of reference ('referentieniveaus') for language and mathe-matics were introduced in the educational system in the Netherlands. The assumption is that these standards will lead to higher levels of these basic skills. Furthermore, the standards should be helpful for the identification of low quality schools. In this article, both these expectations are questioned. Using a national database on more than 500 primary schools, it is shown that levels of language and mathematics (not surprisingly) differ widely between students from different social and ethnic backgrounds. And, as a consequence of segregation along these lines, schools with different student populations, vary widely in their outcomes. It is argued that general standards can be useful on a national level, in order to monitor the outcomes of the educational system. But in order to evaluate individual schools, more differentiated methods for evaluation are required, taking differences in student population into account.

To improve student performance, standards have been introduced in educational policy in the Netherlands and abroad. Performance standards are related to effective educational practices like holding high expectations and using formative assessment, both of which are aspects of diagnostic teaching. An educational policy measure like performance standards will only have an effect when teachers are willing and able to implement it. This study explores primary school teachers' attitudes, concerns and knowledge of performance standards and diagnostic teaching through in-depth interviews (N=9) and a questionnaire survey (N=793). Teachers appear to be relatively unfamiliar with performance standards. Nevertheless, they expect standards will positively influence their daily practice and student performance. They do express concerns about the potential effect of performance standards on weaker students. Teachers fear that the basic level will be too difficult for weaker students and the lowest performance standard will therefore be impossible to reach. Currently, teachers often do not discuss with their colleagues which performance levels they expect from different groups of students. Performance standards may stimulate these discussions on learning goals.

Learners of English as a second language frequently make mistakes in their use of the L2. Prévost & White (2000) report that the Missing Surface Inflection Hypothesis (MSIH) suggests that learners know the underlying functional category, but cannot always produce the correct surface form. The present study aims to test this hypothesis by investigating the development of the simple past tense of pupils in bilingual (TTO) and regular secondary education. Therefore, first-form pupils of bilingual and regular Α-level were investigated. The children performed two writing assignments: one at the start of the year and another one four months later (just after the Christmas holidays). The TTO-pupils showed more progress in their acquisition of past tense forms of English as compared to regular Α-level pupils and they were more creative in their language use, as was visible in the mistakes they made. Furthermore, no pupil used only non-finite forms. Thus, the findings indicate that the MSIH appears to be correct.

This semi-longitudinal/cross-sectional study explores the role of two possible variables in the L2 development of Dutch high school students: scholastic aptitude (operationalized as CITO score) and the amount of input, both in school (two hours a week versus 15 hours a week) and out of school. First grade participants were followed for two years and third grade students for one year. At the beginning of the study, all students filled in an extensive questionnaire on motivation, attitude, and out-of-school contact and took a proficiency tests consisting of a receptive vocabulary and a productive writing task. At each subsequent measure point, the language proficiency test was repeated. The results show that out-of-school contact with English made a significant contribution to their English proficiency, even with the presence of predictors of CITO score, grade (1 or 3) , instructional group (2 versus 15 hours) and interaction between grade and group. The analysis also revealed a significant effect of aptitude (operationalized as CITO score) on the learners' general English proficiency, revealing that students in both conditions with a higher CITO score have a higher English proficiency level as well. We conclude that in-school input helps: the learners who receive 15 hours a week of English input score significantly higher on the writing scores than the two other groups during and at the end of the third year, even when we take other factors such as initial proficiency level, scholastic aptitude and out-of-school contact into consideration. The data also shows that the CITO score is a strong predictor of language development, even within the narrow bandwidth of about 540-550. However, we need to be careful in interpreting what this means. Perhaps general aptitude only affects the rate of acquisition rather than the ability to become very proficient.

The topic of bilingualism in education continues to generate much debate. Issues under discussion include for example how best to support the Dutch language development of multilingual children and how to successfully implement bilingual secondary education and early foreign language instruction. This paper reports upon the symposium Bilingual Acquisition and Bilingual Education which brought together key players in this debate from the fields of research, policy and teaching practice to exchange ideas and insights with a view to formulating recommendations for future policy on multilingualism as well as generating new research questions. In the morning session, the discussion concerned recent results from research on multilingual acquisition and education in a variety of contexts, and in the afternoon session, the focus lay on issues concerning policy and teaching practice. This report consists of a summary of the main issues discussed there and ends with a list of points for future attention.

In 2003 the local authorities in Amsterdam initiated a language policy in cooperation with the city's elementary schools. During eight years a large number of activities have been undertaken to help schools with their task to educate children from very different language backgrounds as well as they can and to find solutions for the problems they face. This article summarizes these activities in the light of changing views on language policy. Although it is still difficult to get an insight into the actual effects of all the efforts on the pupils, trends of changes are becoming clear. Now it is time to consolidate these trends and to move on to incorporate evidence-based programmes and new knowledge into the schools and to educate the teachers to perform their complex tasks as well as possible.

In the last few years Amsterdam has invested much money and energy in the early education of 21/2- to 6-year old children in an effort to improve the quality of this type of education. Great care is taken that the conditions for a successful preschool education are fulfilled. The language proficiency of the teachers has been tested and teachers who have not reached the desired proficiency level are offered free language lessons. For children at the age of four and six language goals have been formulated. And the didactic competencies of the teachers are checked by observing them during their daily practice. Nevertheless there remain some concerns for the future, like the general education level of the teachers, the gap that sometimes exists between preschool and primary school and the question how to evaluate best the language proficiency of the children.