Language and Linguistics - Online First

Features and structures of mental lexicon representation are fundamental in psycholinguistics. However, previous investigations into third language acquisition have varied widely in their results and have seldom involved Mandarin as the L3 of participants. In addition, explorations into how mental lexicon representation develops are far from sufficient. In light of the above, this study investigates 72 Dutch-English-Mandarin trilinguals with beginner and advanced Mandarin levels and combines questionnaires, interviews, and priming experiments to explore the dynamic and static features of L3 lexical representations. Results suggest that lexical representations of their three languages are separate to some extent. Links among the three lexical stores seem to exist, with differing strengths. The link between L2 (the instructional language) and L3 may possibly be slightly stronger than that between L1 and L3 for participants of both Mandarin levels. As trilinguals improve their L3 level, the L1-L3 link strengthens, and the asymmetry may gradually diminish.

Here we shall be exploring the associative plural (apl) in Cantonese. The apl construction typically consists of a focal referent and an apl marker, 佢哋 keoi⁵dei⁶, denoting ‘X and X’s associate(s)’, as in 小明佢哋 siu²ming⁴keoi⁵dei⁶ ‘Ming and his associate(s)’. The data are derived from corpora and internet sources. A grammaticality judgment test targeting native Cantonese speakers is conducted. There are five major facets to this project. (1) We shall explore the linguistic properties of the apl construction, which is semantically and structurally quite different from conjunctive coordination or inclusory constructions. (2) The apl marker has two forms, to wit 哋 =dei⁶ and 佢哋 keoi⁵dei⁶. The former, however, seems odd and is rarely attested in modern Cantonese. Given that the apl marker can be either a bound form 哋 =dei⁶ or a free pronoun 佢哋 keoi⁵dei⁶, it is analyzed as a clitic. (3) We argue that a focal referent can be a complex noun phrase, which can involve conjunctive coordination, implying that two focal referents are possible. (4) The apl construction is often used to introduce new referents to the discourse. It is also used after a topic shift, or to reintroduce referents when they have been mentioned before in a distant turn. (5) We argue that using the apl construction is associated with communicative efficiency. Even if a group of associates are covert, addressees can identify the relationship between the focal referent and the associates and potentially each referent without exhaustively listing them. High communicative efficiency is attained by reducing articulatory cost.

台灣閩南語在漳泉方言的長期接觸下，具備「不漳不泉、亦漳亦泉」的特點，近年來浮現的「台灣閩南語普通腔」受到矚目，然而對於若干音類的普通腔變體，學者的推測或有不一致之處，且對於「漳泉濫」──方言混雜的音類鮮少有進一步的討論。由於前人研究認為南部混合腔閩南語最接近普通腔，洪惟仁 (1992) 也曾認為台東市閩南語是優勢音的具體存在，本文透過屏東市及台東市兩個混合腔閩南語的社會方言調查，分析前人對普通腔變體推測不一的〈毛扛白〉、〈杯稽白〉、〈箴箴文〉類之具體表現；並剖析非單一變體勝出、呈現漳泉混雜之音類的不同樣貌。本文亦探討〈居居〉類的文白分讀以及〈青更白〉類漳音[ẽ]多、泉音[ĩ]少的融合，並分析少數音類的個別詞彙有異於整個音類的特殊表現。語言因素、社會因素、社會心理因素都影響台灣混合腔閩南語漳泉混雜樣態之形成。

台灣南島語言在構詞上沒有顯性的時制範式，但有不同形式的未來標記，在時間系統上呈現非未來和未來二分。過去文獻因為這些未來標記具有情態性，認為非未來/未來的區分可由真實/非真實事態的區分來推導，主張它們代表非現實語氣且台灣南島語言是所謂的非現實語氣顯著語言。本文根據泰雅語的第一手語料、以及詳細檢視鄒語和邵語的材料，證明這些語言的未來標記是帶有未來性的情態詞，不適宜分析為非現實語氣這個語法範疇。迥異於跨語言非現實語氣的表現，這些未來標記在各種非真實環境不是不能出現就是侷限於未來性，它們也不能出現或不必然使用在反事實條件句的結論句。跨南島語來看，台灣南島語言與具有現實/非現實語氣範式的大洋洲語言在焦點和語氣的有無上形成顯著對比。在理論分析的意義上，真實性是結合時間與情態的廣義語法範疇，但在這三個台灣南島語言，未來標記的功能僅為非現實語氣的下位詞。釐清未來標記不等於非現實語氣後，未來更多的研究可關注其他可能表達非真實事態的標記及時制的有無。

漢語的助詞「著」是一個用於表達持續性事件的非完整體標記，北京話裡它緊附於謂詞上形成「V著O」式，用例如「墻上掛著畫」「他騎著車上學去了」。在中國太行山以西的北方漢語方言（簡稱「西北漢語」）裡，助詞「著」有一系列迥異於北京話「著」的語法表現。首先，西北漢語的「著」在標示非完整體時經常遠離謂詞而位於賓語之後，如「<寧夏中寧> 我寫作業著呢我正在寫作業」。而且，這種「VO著」式可表達的非完整體意義遠多於北京話的「V著O」式，如「<烏魯木齊>路堵死底呢路是堵死的狀態」。其次，甘肅、青海、新疆的西北漢語裡助詞「著」還可以插在兩個VP之間承擔「連鎖標記」的功能，如「<西寧>家抱住娃娃著餵奶著她正抱著孩子餵奶呢」，這種「VP1+著+VP2」式的連鎖結構偏離了漢語為「連動型語言」的基本模式。由於「著」的這些特異現象既不見於古漢語文獻，也不見於其他地區的漢語，我們便比較了中國西北民族語（蒙語、藏語、突厥語）的相應表達式，最終證實：西北漢語「著」的各種特異表現源於漢語跟西北民族語接觸引發的創新性演變，其演變機制代表了語言接觸性演變的一種新模式「妥協性創新」。簡言之，兩種語言如果類型迥異，在接觸中就偏向創造一種「各讓一步、達到雙贏」的新形式。